Answer: (C) (b) only

Solution:

• Plato says the material world reflects the Ideas, not the other way around.

• Sensible things are copies or shadows of Ideas.

• Therefore, Ideas are not reflections of things.

Correct Answer: (C) Hegel

Explanation

Hegel praised The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli as “the great and true conception of a real political genius with the highest and noblest purpose.”

Hegel did not see The Prince as a manual of immorality. Instead, he interpreted it as a realistic and patriotic work, written to unify and strengthen Italy during a time of political chaos. According to Hegel, Machiavelli’s advice was aimed at state survival and national unity, which he considered a noble political purpose.

Correct Answer: (C) W. T. Bluhm

Explanation:

W. T. Bluhm stated that political theory stands for an abstract model of the political order.

By this, Bluhm meant that political theory does not merely describe day-to-day political events. Instead, it constructs abstract frameworks or models to explain how political systems ought to function, how power is organized, and how institutions relate to one another. These models help us understand, compare, and evaluate political realities.

Correct Answer: (D) Behavioural theory is not specially concerned with Anglo-American model

Explanation

Statement (D) is not true.

Behavioural political theory emerged mainly in the United States and Britain and is therefore closely linked to the Anglo-American political tradition. It focuses on:

• empirical and scientific study of politics

• observable political behaviour

• quantitative methods like surveys, statistics, and data analysis

Because of this strong Anglo-American orientation, saying that behavioural theory is not specially concerned with the Anglo-American model is incorrect.

Correct Answer: (C) 34

Explanation

In the Arthashastra, written by Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), 34 departments of government are mentioned.

These departments cover almost every aspect of state administration, showing how advanced and systematic ancient Indian governance was. They include departments related to:

• revenue and taxation

• agriculture

• trade and commerce

• mining and metallurgy

• forests

• law and justice

• defence and espionage

Kautilya believed that a well-organized administrative machinery was essential for a strong and stable state, and hence he clearly outlined these 34 departments.

Correct Answer: (C) Aristotle

Explanation:

The statement refers to Aristotle.

After the death of Alexander the Great, strong anti-Macedonian feelings arose in Athens. Aristotle, who had close connections with Macedonia, was charged with impiety. Remembering the earlier execution of Socrates, Aristotle chose to leave Athens and flee to Chalcis (Calchis).

He famously remarked that he did so “in order that the Athenians might not commit a second crime against philosophy”, the first being the execution of Socrates.

Correct Answer: (D) (d), (c), (b), (a)

Explanation (in chronological order):

Let’s arrange the works according to the year in which they first appeared:

1. (d) The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations
   – by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba
   – Published in 1963
   – A foundational work in behavioural political science.

2. (c) The End of History and the Last Man
   – by Francis Fukuyama
   – Published in 1992
   – Argues that liberal democracy marks the endpoint of ideological evolution.

3. (b) Democratisation: Theory and Practice
   – by Samuel P. Huntington
   – Published in the early 1990s (after the Cold War)
   – Deals with democratic transitions and consolidation.

4. (a) Comparative Federalism
   – Developed as a systematic field later, mainly in the late 20th century, as comparative politics expanded.

Correct Answer: (C) Inspector of coins

Explanation:

According to Kautilya in the Arthashastra, rupadarśaka (rupadarshak) was an official responsible for examining coins.

The rupadarshak ensured:

• the purity of metal used in coins

• the correct weight and standard of currency

• prevention of counterfeiting and debasement

This role was crucial for maintaining economic stability and state revenue in the Mauryan administration.

Correct Answer: (D) All the above

Explanation

Plato appropriated ideas from all three thinkers, combining them into his own philosophical system:

• Heraclitus → Plato adopted the idea that the sensory/material world is in constant change.

• Parmenides → From him, Plato took the notion of unchanging, eternal reality, which influenced his Theory of Ideas (Forms).

• Socrates → Plato inherited ethical inquiry, dialectical method, and the search for moral truth.

Plato synthesized these ideas:

• the changing world (Heraclitus),

• the unchanging reality of Forms (Parmenides), and

• ethical reasoning and dialogue (Socrates).

Correct Matching: a–iii, b–i, c–iv, d–ii

Explanation: Let’s match each thinker with their dominant concept:

Correct Answer: (D) The Timaeus

Explanation:

Plato developed his theory about the nature of ultimate reality and explained the origin and structure of the actual (physical) world primarily in Timaeus.

In The Timaeus, Plato presents:

• a cosmological account of the universe,

• the role of the Demiurge (divine craftsman),

• the relationship between the eternal Forms (Ideas) and the changing material world.

This dialogue specifically deals with how the sensible world is fashioned after the eternal Forms, making it central to Plato’s theory of ultimate reality.

Correct Answer: (A) The contemporary Prussian State

Explanation:

According to G. W. F. Hegel, the highest achievement of Mind (Geist) in social and political life is realized in the modern rational state. Hegel believed that this ideal was best embodied in the contemporary Prussian State of his time.

For Hegel:

• History is the progressive realization of freedom.

• The state represents the ethical life (Sittlichkeit) where individual freedom and universal reason are reconciled.

• Ancient states like Athens or Rome were important stages, but they were partial and incomplete forms of freedom.

Thus, Hegel regarded the Prussian constitutional monarchy as the culmination of historical development.

Correct Answer:  (C) Perfect strictness

Explanation:

Niccolò Machiavelli, in his famous work The Prince, advised the ruler to practice perfect strictness rather than excessive generosity or kindness.

Machiavelli argued that:

• A prince should be firm and disciplined to maintain order and stability.

• Excessive generosity can weaken the state by draining resources.

• Great kindness or leniency may encourage disorder and rebellion.

Hence, while a ruler should appear merciful, he must act with strictness when the security of the state is at stake.

Correct Answer: (B) A well focused mental look

Explanation:

The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theoria, which means “to look at,” “to observe,” or “to contemplate.” It refers to a careful, focused intellectual observation or mental vision.

In political and social sciences, theory therefore implies:

• a systematic way of looking at reality,

• a focused and reflective understanding of social and political phenomena,

• an interpretative mental framework, not a physical or institutional structure.

Correct Answer: (D) Ernest Barker

Explanation:

Ernest Barker is not associated with the decline of political theory. In fact, Barker was a strong defender of classical and normative political theory, emphasizing political ideas, ethics, and constitutional thought.

The idea of the decline of political theory emerged mainly during the behavioural revolution in political science, which stressed empirical and scientific methods over normative theory.

Why the others are associated with the decline?

• Peter Laslett – Famously remarked that “for the moment, anyway, political philosophy is dead”, indicating decline.

• David Easton – Spoke of the decline of traditional political theory due to behaviouralism (before later calling for post-behaviouralism).

• Jean Blondel – Associated with behavioural and empirical approaches that sidelined normative theory.

Correct Answer: (D) Science of Logic

Explanation

Karl Marx did not author Science of Logic. That work was written by G. W. F. Hegel.

Correct Answer: (A) J. S. Mill

Explanation:

The quote “Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign” was written by J. S. Mill in his famous work On Liberty (1859).

This statement expresses Mill’s core idea of individual liberty, emphasizing that:

• each person has absolute sovereignty over their own body and mind,

• society or the state may interfere only to prevent harm to others (the harm principle).

Correct Answer: (A) Structural functionalism

Explanation:

Rajni Kothari wrote Politics in India using the structural–functional approach, which was a dominant methodology in political science during the 1960s.

Under structural functionalism, politics is studied by examining:

• structures (institutions like parties, pressure groups, caste associations), and

• functions (how these structures perform roles such as interest articulation, aggregation, political communication, and social integration).

Kothari analyzed Indian politics—especially the party system, caste, factionalism, and political participation—by showing how traditional and modern structures function together within the political system.

Correct Answer: (A) Machiavelli

Explanation:

Niccolò Machiavelli is regarded as the first modern political thinker who deliberately ignored Aristotle.

Machiavelli broke away from the Aristotelian–medieval tradition, which emphasized:

• ethics and morality,

• the idea of the state as a moral community,

• politics as a branch of moral philosophy.

Instead, in The Prince, Machiavelli:

• separated politics from ethics,

• focused on power, realism, and statecraft,

• analyzed politics as it actually is, not as it ought to be.

This conscious rejection of Aristotle’s moral–teleological approach marks the beginning of modern political theory.

Correct Answer: (D) T. H. Green

Explanation:

T. H. Green is regarded as the thinker who synthesized German and English liberalism.

• From German idealism (especially Hegel), Green adopted the idea that the state plays a positive moral role in promoting human freedom and ethical life.

• From English liberalism, he retained the concern for individual liberty, but reinterpreted it.

Green argued that freedom is not merely absence of restraint (negative liberty) but the capacity to realize one’s moral and social potential (positive liberty). Thus, he justified state intervention (education, welfare, social reform) as a means to enhance real freedom.

Correct Answer: (B) Norman Angell

Explanation

Norman Angell is not a theorist of Political Realism. He is associated with liberal/idealist thought, especially through his argument that war is economically irrational in the modern, interdependent world (famously in The Great Illusion).

Correct Answer: (D) Catlin

Explanation:

The definition of political science as “the study of the act of human and social control” or “the study of control relationships of wills” was given by George Catlin.

Catlin viewed politics as a process of control and influence, where:

• some individuals or groups exercise control, and

• others are subject to that control.

Thus, political science, according to him, studies how power operates through relationships of will, authority, and obedience in society.

Correct Answer: (C) Philosophy

Explanation:

Philosophy is regarded as the parent science of all the social sciences because it originally provided the conceptual foundations, methods, and questions from which other social sciences developed.

• Early thinkers like Plato and Aristotle discussed politics, ethics, society, and economics within philosophy itself.

• Disciplines such as political science, sociology, economics, and history later emerged as independent fields but retained philosophical assumptions about knowledge, values, and method.

Correct Answer: (B) Ethics

Explanation:

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with morality and formulates rules and principles that should guide or influence human behaviour in society.

It focuses on questions such as:

What is right and wrong?

What ought individuals to do?

What moral standards should govern social life?

Correct Answer: (C) Political Science

Explanation:

Ethics is concerned with man as a moral being, focusing on questions of right, wrong, virtue, and good life. Because moral character and values of individuals come before their organization into political institutions, ethics is prior to political science.

This view is classically associated with Aristotle, who argued that:

• Ethics studies the good of the individual, and

• Politics studies the good of the state, which is a collective of individuals.

Since the state is made up of moral persons, understanding ethics is logically necessary before studying political arrangements and governance.

Correct Answer: (D) All of the above

Explanation:

All the listed thinkers explained political problems using psychological approaches:

• Gustave Le Bon – In his work on crowd psychology, he analyzed how collective mental states influence political movements and leadership.

• James Mark Baldwin – Applied psychological development to social and political behavior, stressing mental processes behind social institutions.

• Graham Wallas – In Human Nature in Politics, he emphasized irrationality, instincts, and emotions as key factors in political life.

Together, these writers showed that political behavior cannot be understood without psychology, explaining leadership, masses, voting, and policy-making through mental and emotional factors.

Correct Answer: (A) Anthropology

Explanation:

Political scientists have borrowed concepts like cultural relativism, social evolution, and cultural diffusion from anthropology.

Anthropology studies human cultures, social institutions, traditions, and patterns of change across societies. While analyzing political systems—especially in traditional, tribal, and developing societies—political scientists found these anthropological concepts very useful:

• Cultural relativism → Understanding political practices within their own cultural context, not by external standards.

• Social evolution → Explaining how political institutions develop over time from simple to complex forms.

• Cultural diffusion → Explaining how political ideas, institutions, and practices spread from one society to another.

Correct Answer: (D) Wallas

Explanation:

The statement that politics has its roots, psychologically, in the study of mental habits and vocational activities of mankind was made by Graham Wallas.

In his influential work Human Nature in Politics, Wallas argued that:

• political behavior is deeply influenced by psychological factors such as habits, emotions, instincts, and beliefs,

• politics cannot be understood purely through logic, institutions, or legal rules,

• the mental habits and everyday activities of people shape political attitudes and decisions.

Thus, Wallas emphasized a psychological approach to politics, moving away from purely rational or institutional explanations.

Correct Answer: (C) Historical theory

Explanation:

Liberalism accepts the historical (or evolutionary) theory of the origin of the state, which explains the state as a product of gradual social development, customs, traditions, and institutions evolving over time.

According to liberal thinkers:

• the state did not arise suddenly through force or class conflict,

• nor was it created by a single contract or institution,

• instead, it developed organically as society became more complex.

This view aligns with the liberal emphasis on evolution, continuity, and reform, rather than revolution.

Correct Answer: (B) Marxist view

Explanation:

The Marxist view holds that the state originated with class division and class struggle in society.

According to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels:

• early societies were classless,

• with the emergence of private property, society split into classes (owners vs. non-owners),

• the state arose as an instrument of domination used by the economically dominant class to maintain its control.

Thus, the state is not a neutral institution but a product of class conflict.

Correct Answer: (C) Paul Janet

Explanation:

The statement “Politics is that part of social science which treats of the foundations of the state and the principles of government” was made by Paul Janet.

Paul Janet viewed politics as a systematic and scientific study concerned with:

• the origin and foundations of the state, and

• the principles and forms of government.

His definition places political science within the broader field of social sciences, focusing on the theoretical and institutional aspects of political life.

Correct Answer: (D) Power instead of the state

Explanation:

Guild and Palmer strongly argued that the subject of politics should be “power” rather than the state.

They believed that:

• limiting political science only to the state makes the subject too narrow,

• real politics is about who gets power, how power is exercised, and how it is distributed,

• power operates not only through the state but also through political parties, pressure groups, elites, and social forces.

Therefore, they pleaded for a broader view of politics, focusing on power relations in society, not just formal state institutions.

Correct Answer: (B) worked for the common good

Explanation:

Auguste Comte portrayed society as a harmonious and ordered system in which different social classes perform complementary roles and work together for the common good.

Comte believed that:

• society functions like an organic whole,

• social order and stability are essential for progress,

• conflicts between classes can be minimized through cooperation and moral consensus.

This idea is closely linked to his emphasis on social order and social harmony, later influencing functionalist thought in sociology.

Correct Answer: (C) Red world

Explanation:

Socialist states based on Marxian ideology are known as the Red world.

The color red symbolizes:

• socialism and communism,

• workers’ movements and class struggle,

• the ideology associated with Karl Marx and Marxism.

During the Cold War era, countries following socialist/communist ideology were commonly referred to as part of the Red world.

Correct Answer: (D) Pluralism – Kropotkin (mismatched)

Explanation:

Let’s check each pair:

• (A) Fascism – Mussolini 
  Benito Mussolini was the founder and chief ideologue of Fascism.

• (B) Anarchism – Bakunin 
  Mikhail Bakunin was a leading theorist of anarchism.

• (C) Socialism – Thomas More 
  Thomas More, through Utopia, is regarded as an early utopian socialist.

• (D) Pluralism – Kropotkin 
  Peter Kropotkin was an anarchist communist, not a pluralist.
  Pluralism is associated with thinkers like Laski, Bentley, and Figgis, not Kropotkin.

Correct Answer: (C) Gramsci

Explanation:

The concept of “hegemony” was extensively developed and used by Antonio Gramsci.

Gramsci used hegemony to explain how a dominant class maintains power not only through coercion (force, law, state) but also through consent, by shaping:

• culture,

• ideology,

• values,

• and common sense.

According to Gramsci, the ruling class secures leadership by intellectual and moral domination, making its worldview appear natural and universally accepted.

Correct Answer: (A) Morgenthau

Explanation:

The statement “Politics is a struggle for power” is associated with Hans Morgenthau.

Morgenthau, a leading classical realist, argued that:

• politics—especially international politics—is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature,

• power is the central concept for understanding political actions and state behavior,

• states pursue national interest defined in terms of power.

This view is clearly articulated in his work Politics Among Nations.

Correct Answer: (B) Practical politics

Explanation:

Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra as a manual of practical politics and statecraft.

The Arthashastra deals with:

• administration of the state

• diplomacy and foreign policy

• war, espionage, and security

• economic management and revenue

• law, justice, and governance

It is a realistic and pragmatic guide for rulers, focusing on how power is actually acquired and maintained, rather than on moral or religious ideals.

Correct Answer: (D) Comparative method

Explanation:

James Bryce is regarded as the best advocate of the comparative method in political science.

Bryce strongly believed that:

• political institutions and governments can be best understood through systematic comparison across countries,

• comparison helps identify similarities, differences, strengths, and weaknesses of political systems.

His famous work The American Commonwealth is a classic example of the comparative approach, where he compared the political institutions and practices of the United States with those of European countries, especially Britain.

Correct Answer: (B) Polis, Polity, Politeia

Explanation:

The English word “politics” originates from three Greek words:

• Polis → the city-state (the basic political unit in ancient Greece)

• Polity → the organization or form of government of the polis

• Politeia → the constitution, citizenship, and public affairs of the state

Together, these terms formed the conceptual foundation of politics as the study of the state, government, and public life.

This usage is closely associated with classical Greek political thought, especially that of Aristotle, who described politics as the study of the polis and its constitution (politeia).

Correct Answer: (C) Backward

Explanation:

The statement was made by Henry Thomas Buckle.

Buckle argued that politics had not yet developed into a true science because it lacked:

• precise laws,

• exact methods of prediction,

• and scientific certainty like the natural sciences.

Hence, he remarked that “in the present state of knowledge, politics, far from being a science, is the most backward of all arts.”
By this, Buckle emphasized the undeveloped and imprecise nature of political knowledge in his time.

Correct Answer: (D) History

Explanation:

The statement was made by Stephen Leacock.

Leacock argued that history cannot be properly understood without political science. According to him:

• historical events are deeply shaped by political institutions, power relations, and government actions,

• without at least an unconscious understanding of political science, history loses its real meaning and significance.

In short, politics provides the framework within which historical events occur, so history depends heavily on political understanding.

Correct Answer: (B) Oligarchical Structures

Explanation:

Robert Michels demonstrated that democratic parties tend to become oligarchical structures.

In his famous theory known as the “Iron Law of Oligarchy”, Michels argued that:

• all complex organizations, including democratic parties,

• inevitably develop concentrated leadership and elite control,

• ordinary members gradually lose real decision-making power.

Thus, even organizations committed to democracy end up being ruled by a few leaders, making them oligarchical in practice.

Correct Answer: (D) All of the above

Explanation:

All the listed thinkers are advocates of the power theory in politics, which views politics primarily as a process of power—its acquisition, distribution, and exercise.

• George Catlin
  Defined politics in terms of control and power relationships among human wills.

• Morton A. Kaplan
  Analyzed political systems (especially international politics) with power as a central variable.

• Harold D. Lasswell
  Famously defined politics as “who gets what, when, and how,” directly linking politics to power distribution.

Correct Answer: (D) I, II and IV

Explanation:

Liberalism is based on the following core elements:

• I. Individual should have the right to develop his own personality 
  Liberalism emphasizes individual liberty, autonomy, and self-development.

• II. Man is a rational creature 
  Liberals believe humans are rational and capable of making informed choices.

• III. Society should not be plural 
  This is not a liberal belief. Liberalism accepts pluralism—diversity of interests, groups, and opinions.

• IV. It believes in constitutionalism 
  Liberalism supports constitutional government, rule of law, and limited power.

Correct Answer: (A) 1889

Explanation:

Pandita Ramabai opened Sharda Sadan (Home for Learning) in 1889.

Sharda Sadan was established to:

• provide education and shelter to widows,

• promote women’s education and empowerment,

• challenge social practices that denied learning opportunities to women.

Initially started in Bombay, Sharda Sadan later became a major center for women’s education in Pune.

Correct Answer: (C) Sub-Saharan Africa

Explanation:

In 1989, the World Bank formally conceptualised the idea of “governance” in its report Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth.

In this context, governance was defined as:

• the exercise of political power in managing a nation’s affairs,

• issues related to administrative efficiency,

• accountability, rule of law, and institutional capacity.

The concept emerged because many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa were facing:

• economic stagnation,

• weak state institutions,

• corruption and poor public administration.

The World Bank argued that economic development could not succeed without good governance.

Correct Answer: (D) Economic equality

Explanation:

The liberal notion of equality emphasizes equal rights and equal opportunities, not equality of outcomes.

Liberalism supports:

• Legal equality – equality before law

• Political equality  – equal political rights like voting

• Social equality  – absence of status-based discrimination

However, economic equality  (equal distribution of wealth and income) is not compatible with classical liberalism, because liberals believe:

• individuals differ in talent, effort, and choices,

• economic inequalities are a natural result of free competition,

• the state should ensure opportunity, not equal economic results.

Economic equality is more closely associated with socialist and Marxist thought, not liberalism.

Correct Answer: (A) Plato

Explanation:

The Theory of Forms and the Allegory of the Cave are both central ideas of Plato.

• Theory of Forms: Plato argued that ultimate reality consists of eternal, unchanging Forms (Ideas), while the material world is only a shadow or imitation of these Forms.

• Allegory of the Cave: Presented in The Republic, it illustrates how humans move from ignorance to knowledge, from illusion to truth, symbolizing philosophical enlightenment.

These concepts explain Plato’s metaphysical and epistemological views, not those of Aristotle, Machiavelli, or Hobbes.

Correct Answer: (D) Nitishastra

Explanation

The Arthashastra of Kautilya is known as a Nitishastra.

Nitishastra refers to texts dealing with:

• statecraft and governance,

• political ethics,

• administration, diplomacy, and public policy,

• practical rules for rulers.

The Arthashastra is a systematic manual of political wisdom and practical governance, rather than a religious or ritual text.

Correct Answer: (C) Rachel Carson

Explanation:

The book Silent Spring was authored by Rachel Carson and published in 1962.

In Silent Spring, Carson exposed the harmful effects of pesticides, especially DDT, on:

• the environment,

• wildlife (particularly birds), and

• human health.

The book is credited with:

• • sparking the modern environmental movement,

  • leading to changes in environmental policy,

  • contributing to the ban/restriction of DDT in many countries.

Correct Answer: (D) I, II, III and IV

Explanation:

All the given statements are features of Plato’s theory of education, as outlined mainly in Plato’s work The Republic.

Let’s verify each statement:

• I. It is a means of social righteousness and realization of truth ✅
  Plato believed education should cultivate virtue, justice, and knowledge of truth, aligning the individual soul with the ideal state.

• II. Elementary education begins at childhood up to the age of six ✅
  Early education focused on moral training, stories, music, and physical development, starting in early childhood.

• III. The public test is held at the age of twenty ✅
  At 20, a selection test identifies those fit for higher intellectual training.

• IV. At the age of thirty, a second selective test is to take place ✅
  At 30, another rigorous test selects future philosopher-kings for advanced study in dialectics.

Correct Answer: (D) For the first time he emphasised the need for a strong political control in India

Explanation:

Statement (D) is not correct in the case of Kautilya.

The idea of strong political control in India existed even before Kautilya, especially in:

• Vedic and post-Vedic traditions,

• early monarchic ideas found in Dharmashastra literature,

• earlier notions of kingship and authority.

Kautilya systematized and elaborated this idea in a highly practical and realistic manner, but he was not the first to emphasize strong political control.

Correct Answer: (D) being a Sanskrit scholar

Explanation:

Pandita Ramabai was accorded the title “Pandita” because of her exceptional scholarship in Sanskrit.

She had an extraordinary command over:

• Sanskrit grammar and literature,

• ancient Hindu scriptures,

• philosophical texts.

In 1878, Sanskrit scholars in Calcutta honoured her with the titles “Pandita” and “Saraswati” in recognition of her erudition, not for her later social reform activities.

Correct Matching: A–II, B–IV, C–III, D–I

Explanation:

In Arthashastra, Kautilya compares the organs of the State with the organs of the human body to explain their functions:

Correct Answer: (A) G. H. Sabine

Explanation:

The statement that The Republic pictures a utopia not because it is a romance but because Plato intended it to be the start of a scientific attack upon the idea of the good was made by G. H. Sabine.

Sabine interpreted The Republic as:

• not a work of fantasy or mere idealism,

• but a systematic and rational inquiry into justice, the good life, and the ideal state,

• an early example of scientific political philosophy, where Plato uses reason, classification, and logical analysis.

According to Sabine, Plato’s utopia serves as a methodological tool to explore moral and political truths, not as an impractical dream.

Correct Answer: (B) Morgenthau

Explanation:

The statement “Kautilya’s Arthashastra exemplified radical Machiavellianism; compared to it Machiavelli’s Prince is harmless” is attributed to Hans Morgenthau.

Morgenthau, a leading political realist, admired the hard-headed realism of Kautilya’s Arthashastra. He argued that Kautilya’s work:

• treats power, deception, espionage, coercion, and strategy with exceptional frankness,

• is more systematic and uncompromising in realism than Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince,

• represents an earlier and more radical form of political realism.

Correct Answer: (D) one man one work, one class one duty

Explanation:

According to Plato, justice means each individual and each class performing the function for which they are best suited, without interfering in the roles of others.

In The Republic, Plato defines justice as:

• “one man, one work” at the individual level, and

• “one class, one duty” at the social level.

Plato divided society into three classes:

1. Rulers (philosopher-kings) – wisdom

2. Auxiliaries (soldiers) – courage

3. Producers (farmers, artisans) – appetite

Justice exists when:

• each class performs its proper function, and

• there is no interference among classes.

Correct Answer: (A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

Explanation:

Assertion (A) is true: Kautilya emphasized the need for a strong ruler in his work Arthashastra.

Reason (R) is also true and correctly explains the assertion:
Kautilya had a keen awareness of the dangers of anarchy (matsyanyaya)—the condition where the strong prey upon the weak—and therefore stressed the absolute necessity of order in society. To prevent chaos, protect subjects, and ensure prosperity, he advocated strong, centralized authority and effective governance.

Correct Answer: (B) Antisthenes – The notion of absolute asceticism and rigorous self-mortification

Explanation:

Plato’s Theory of Ideas (Forms) drew from several philosophical sources, but not from Antisthenes’ asceticism.

Let’s examine each option:

• (A) Heracleitus – The notion of the sphere of becoming ✅
  Heraclitus taught that the sensible world is in constant flux (becoming). Plato accepted this to explain why sense-knowledge is unreliable, contrasting it with the stable world of Forms.

• (C) Socrates – The doctrine of concepts ✅
  Socrates emphasized universal definitions (concepts like justice, virtue), which strongly influenced Plato’s idea of universal Forms.

• (D) Eleatics – The idea of a sphere of absolute being ✅
  The Eleatics (e.g., Parmenides) proposed an unchanging, eternal Being, which inspired Plato’s notion of the unchanging reality of Forms.

• (B) Antisthenes – The notion of absolute asceticism and rigorous self-mortification ❌
  Antisthenes influenced Cynicism, stressing ascetic ethics, not Plato’s metaphysical theory of Forms. This is not a source of the Theory of Ideas.

Correct Answer: (C) Varna system

Explanation:

According to Kautilya, the organs of the state are described in his Arthashastra under the Saptanga (seven-limbed) theory of the state.

The seven organs include:

• Swami (King/Ruler)

• Amatya (Ministers)

• Janapada (Territory & population)

• Durga (Fort)

• Kosha (Treasury)

• Danda (Army/force and punishment)

• Mitra (Ally)

Correct Answer : Only II (Sparta)

Explanation:

Plato’s idea of communism of family and property (for the guardian class) in The Republic was largely inspired by Sparta.

• Sparta had:

  • common upbringing of children,

  • state control over education,

  • minimal private property among the ruling/warrior class,

  • subordination of family ties to the interests of the state.

Plato admired these features and adapted them philosophically for his guardian class to promote unity, discipline, and loyalty to the state.

Correct Answer: (B) John Locke

Explanation:

The definition of civil (political) power as “the right of making laws with penalties… for the regulating and preserving of property, and of employing the force of the community, in the execution of such laws… all this only for the public good” was given by John Locke.

Locke presented this definition in his work Two Treatises of Government.

According to Locke:

• political power exists to protect life, liberty, and property,

• laws must be framed for the public good,

• the state’s authority is limited and conditional, based on consent.

Correct Answer: (D) Karl Marx

Explanation:

The statement “the emancipation of the working class is the work of the working class itself” was given by Karl Marx.

This idea reflects Marx’s core belief that:

• the working class (proletariat) must liberate itself through its own collective struggle,

• liberation cannot be granted by elites, leaders, or external forces,

• true emancipation requires class consciousness and self-activity of workers.

The phrase appears in the Rules of the First International (International Working Men’s Association) and is central to Marxist theory.

Correct Answer: (B) Protagoras

Explanation:

In The Republic by Plato, the principal interlocutors include:

• Polemarchus – Takes part in the early discussion on justice.

• Glaucon – One of the main speakers; challenges Socrates and pushes the argument forward.

• Adeimantus – Glaucon’s brother; actively participates in the debate on justice and education.

Protagoras, however, is not a character in The Republic. He is a Sophist who appears in another dialogue by Plato, titled Protagoras.

Correct Answer: (B) Protagoras

Explanation:

In The Republic by Plato, the principal characters include:

• Polemarchus – Participates in the early discussion on justice.

• Glaucon – One of the main interlocutors who challenges Socrates.

• Adeimantus – Glaucon’s brother; actively involved in arguments on justice and education.

Protagoras is not a character in The Republic. He is a Sophist who appears in a different Platonic dialogue, Protagoras.

Correct Matching: A–IV, B–III, C–I, D–II

Explanation:

Let’s match each author with their well-known work:

Correct Answer: (A) Territory, Race, Culture

Explanation:

According to Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, the three fundamental bonds that united the Hindus were:

1. Territory (Rashtra) – A common homeland, identified with India (Hindustan).

2. Race (Jati) – A shared racial and ancestral heritage.

3. Culture (Sanskriti) – Common cultural traditions, history, language, and civilization.

Savarkar articulated these ideas in his formulation of Hindutva, where he argued that Hindus are united by common territory, blood, and culture, forming a cultural–national identity rather than a purely religious one.

Correct Answer: (D) Rousseau

Explanation:

The idea of participatory democracy originates with Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

In his work The Social Contract, Rousseau argued that:

• sovereignty lies with the people,

• citizens should directly participate in law-making,

• laws express the general will, not the will of representatives alone.

This emphasis on active and continuous participation of citizens forms the foundation of participatory democracy.

Correct Answer: (C) Francis Fukuyama

Explanation:

The statement —
“We are witnessing the end of history as such, that is, the endpoint of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalisation of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government” — is the well-known thesis of Francis Fukuyama.

Fukuyama presented this argument in his work The End of History and the Last Man.

According to Fukuyama:

• with the end of the Cold War,

• and the collapse of communism,

• liberal democracy emerged as the final ideological form of political organization.

He did not mean the end of events or conflicts, but the end of ideological alternatives to liberal democracy.