Answer: (1) Everybody gives up their right to govern themselves.

Correct Answer: (3) The Discourses
Explanation:
Machiavelli’s Discourses on Livy emphasizes the role of civic virtue in maintaining a republic, advocating for active citizen participation in politics.

Correct Answer: (2) A, B, and C
Explanation:
The 1648 Treaty of Westphalia established:
Sovereignty (A) – states control their own affairs.
Territoriality (B) – defined national borders.
Autonomy (C) – freedom from external interference.

Correct Answer: (1) A-III; B-IV; C-I; D-II
Explanation:
Plato → The Laws (C)
Rousseau → Emile (D)
Rawls → The Law of Peoples (A)
J.S. Mill → The Subjugation of Women (B)

Answer: (3) Justice is doing one’s own duty as per one’s station of life.

Correct Answer: (2) A-III, B-I, C-II, D-IV
Explanation:
“Politics is the art of the possible” → Otto Von Bismarck (III)
“Man is a political animal” → Aristotle (I)
“Politics is about who gets what, when, and how” → Harold Laswell (II)
“Politics as capacity of acting in concert” → Hannah Arendt (IV)

Correct Answer: (1)

Answer: (1) Coexistence of Contradictions
Explanation:
In Marxist philosophy, dialectics refers to the process of historical change through contradictions (influenced by Hegel).
Marx’s Dialectical Materialism states that economic and social structures evolve through conflict and contradictions between opposing forces (e.g., bourgeoisie vs. proletariat).
Example: The contradiction between capitalists (who own production) and workers (who provide labor) leads to class struggle.

Correct Answer: (1) As creation of men subject to empirical laws
Explanation:
Marx’s historical materialism argues that economic structures and class struggles shape history, not supernatural forces or accidents.

Correct Answer: (2)

Correct Answer: (4)

Correct Answer: (2) Locke
Explanation:
John Locke is called the Father of Liberalism for his ideas on individual rights, limited government, and social contract theory, which influenced modern democracy.

Ans. (2)

Answer: (3) John Stuart Mill 
Explanation:
1. The concept of Tyranny of the Majority was first introduced by Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America and later developed by J.S. Mill in On Liberty.
2. Mill warned that even in a democracy, the majority could suppress minorities and individual freedoms.
3. He argued for individual liberty and protection of minority rights against the dominance of public opinion.

Ans. (1)

Ans: (3)

Ans: (2) (A) Liberty Principle over Equality Principle & (B) Fair Equality of Opportunity over Benefit to Worst-Off
Explanation:
John Rawls’s A Theory of Justice introduced the two principles of justice:
1.Liberty Principle (most basic rights like freedom of speech, thought, and conscience).
2.Difference Principle (social and economic inequalities should benefit the least advantaged).
Lexical Priority:
1.Liberty > Equality (Liberty comes first).
2.Fair Equality of Opportunity > Difference Principle (Opportunities must be fair before helping the worst-off).

Correct Answer: 3. Neoliberal Institutionalism
Explanation:
World System Theory and Dependency Theory are Marxist-inspired critiques of global capitalism.
Critical Theory also has Marxist influences.
Neoliberal Institutionalism, however, is a liberal IR theory focusing on cooperation through international institutions like the UN and WTO.

Correct Answer: (1) Everybody gives up their right of governing themselves.
Explanation:
Hobbes argued in Leviathan that individuals must surrender their right to self-governance to a sovereign authority (Leviathan) to ensure peace and security. The contract is not reversible, and the Leviathan is not a party but rather an enforcer of the contract.

Correct Answer: (1) Individual rights are inviolable
Explanation:
Bentham, a utilitarian, argued that rights are not natural or absolute but should be based on maximizing happiness. He even called natural rights “nonsense on stilts.”

Ans: (1)

Ans: (1) Unity of thought and action

Explanation:

Karl Marx’s theory of praxis emphasizes the unity of thought and action, meaning that ideas and theories must be connected to practical actions that bring about change in the real world. For Marx, praxis involves the application of philosophical and theoretical understanding to transform society, particularly in the context of addressing class struggles and material conditions. It highlights the inseparability of reflective thought and revolutionary practice, aiming for the emancipation of humanity.

Answer: (1) Discourses

Explanation: Niccolò Machiavelli wrote “Discourses on Livy” (often referred to simply as Discourses). This work is a political commentary on the history of ancient Rome and is distinct from The Prince.

Answer: (3) C.B. Macpherson

• Explanation: C.B. Macpherson interpreted Hobbes’ state of nature as a state of competitive individualism, where self-interest drives human behavior, in contrast to earlier, more traditional interpretations.

Ans: (4) Explanation: In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle discusses the concept of eudaimonia, or happiness, which he argues can be achieved through the cultivation of moral and intellectual virtues.

Ans: (1) Explanation: Essay on Toleration is a work by John Locke, in which he advocates for religious tolerance and freedom of belief.

Ans. (2) A Social Contractarian
Explanation: John Rawls is best known for his social contract theory, particularly the “veil of ignorance” and the principles of justice presented in A Theory of Justice..

Answer: (1) Destutt de Tracy
Explanation: The term “ideology” was coined by the French philosopher Destutt de Tracy, who used it to describe the science of ideas.

Ans: (2)
Explanation : Nicomachean Ethics is one of Aristotle’s key works, exploring the nature of virtue and the good life.

Ans: (2)
Explanation: The concept of the “Original Position” is central to Rawls’ theory of justice. It is the hypothetical situation in which individuals, behind a “veil of ignorance,” determine the principles of justice.

Ans: (2)
Explanation: Leviathan is Hobbes’ most famous work, where he discusses his theory of the state and the social contract.

Ans: (1)
Explanation: The concept of “Forms” is central to Plato’s philosophy, referring to ideal, non-material realities that represent the perfect version of objects and concepts in the material world.

Answer: (d) All of the Above

Explanation: Marx was influenced by German Idealism (particularly Hegel), French Socialism (such as Saint-Simon), and English and Scottish Political Economy (such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo).

Answer: (1) Experience
Explanation: Locke believed in empiricism, the view that knowledge comes from sensory experience.

Ans: (2)
Explanation: Discourses on Livy is one of Machiavelli’s key works, examining political theory through the lens of Roman history.

Ans: (3) John Stuart Mill
Explanation: Mill is known for his defense of individual liberty, particularly in his work On Liberty, where he argues that individuals should be free to act as they wish unless their actions harm others.

Ans: (2) John Locke
Explanation: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is Locke’s foundational work in which he argues that the human mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) and that knowledge comes from experience.

Answer: (1) Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Explanation: Rousseau, in The Social Contract, discusses the importance of liberty and the general will, famously asserting that liberty is preferable to safety under oppression.

Answer: (2)

Elizabeth Anderson

John Rawls
Explanation: Rawls introduced the “veil of ignorance” as a thought experiment to design a just society, where individuals, ignorant of their personal circumstances, decide on the principles of justice.

Answer: (2) Fairness
Explanation: Rawls argues that justice must be founded on fairness, as represented in his difference principle, which allows for inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society.

Answer: (3) Aristotle
Explanation: This quote comes from Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, where he discusses justice and fairness in terms of giving people what they deserve based on their nature and situation.

Ans: (2) Courage and audacity

Explanation: In Machiavelli’s context, “virtue” (virtù) refers to qualities such as courage, boldness, and decisiveness, which help rulers navigate challenges effectively, rather than moral goodness.

Ans: (4)
Explanation: In Plato’s philosophy, Forms exist in the realm of “Being,” which represents the eternal, unchanging truths as opposed to the “world of Becoming,” where material objects and phenomena exist.

Ans: (3) Reasonable liberal peoples and decent non‐liberal peoples
Explanation: In The Law of Peoples, Rawls distinguishes between “reasonable liberal peoples” and “decent non-liberal peoples,” who can coexist in a just global order.

Answer: (1) Everybody gives up their right to govern themselves.
Explanation: Hobbes’ social contract theory involves individuals surrendering their natural rights to a sovereign authority to ensure peace and security.

Answer: (2) Plato
Explanation: Plato’s Allegory of the Cave in The Republic illustrates the difference between the world of appearances and the world of reality, using prisoners in a cave as a metaphor for human ignorance.

Answer: (3) He adhered to a sentiment of nationalism in his writings.
Explanation: Machiavelli is often considered a modern philosopher due to his practical approach to politics and his focus on power, statecraft, and nationalism, distinct from medieval religious or idealistic philosophies.

Answer: (1) Vindication of the Rights of Women
Explanation: Vindication of the Rights of Women was written by Mary Wollstonecraft, not J.S. Mill. Mill’s works on politics include The Subjection of Women, On Liberty, and Considerations on Representative Government.

Answer: (3) Justice is doing one’s own duty as per one’s station of life.
Explanation: In Plato’s Republic, justice is a principle of each individual performing their appropriate role in society, with rulers ruling, soldiers protecting, and producers providing.

Answer (1) Pre-industrial societies
Explanation: Subsistence production refers to the mode of production in pre-industrial societies, where goods are produced mainly for personal use and not for exchange.

Correct Answer: 3. Eichmann in Jerusalem
Explanation:
This book analyzes the trial of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi officer. Arendt’s concept of the banality of evil suggests that great atrocities are often committed by ordinary people who simply follow orders without deep reflection.

Answer: (2) System of needs
Explanation: Hegel saw civil society as the realm where individuals pursue their material and social needs, and it plays a crucial role in his dialectical development of the state.

Answer: (2) John Stuart Mill
Explanation: Mill emphasized that true happiness comes from the cultivation of dignity, moral integrity, and personal development, as opposed to mere pleasure (hedonism).

Answer: (4) Glorious Revolution
Explanation: John Locke wrote his Second Treatise during the time of the Glorious Revolution (1688) in England. This event involved the overthrow of King James II and the establishment of constitutional monarchy. Locke’s ideas on the rights of individuals, property, and government stemmed from the political and social upheavals of this time.

Ans. (2) Aristotle
Explanation: Aristotle regarded the state (Polis) as the highest form of political organization, as he believed it was the only form of governance that could fully facilitate the good life and human flourishing. He argued that the state exists to promote virtue and enable citizens to achieve their fullest potential.

Answer: (2) Justice
Explanation: In The Republic, Plato explores the nature of justice, both in the individual and in the state. The work is an inquiry into what constitutes a just society and how justice can be achieved, and whether justice is inherently good.

Answer (2) Plato
Explanation: Plato’s concept of the philosopher-king is central to his Republic. He argued that only philosophers, who understand the true nature of reality and justice, are fit to rule because they can govern with wisdom and reason rather than selfish desire or power.

Ans. (1) Feminine qualities
Explanation: In The Prince, Machiavelli describes virtues in terms of characteristics that a ruler should possess to maintain power, such as strength, cunning, and decisiveness. These qualities are often associated with masculinity and warlike leadership.

Ans. (3) State
Explanation: Machiavelli refers to the state as the institution that holds authority over the lives of men. The state must possess power and control to ensure order and security, and rulers must use any means necessary to maintain this authority.

Ans. (3) Universal egoism 
Explanation: Hegel associated civil society with a sphere where individuals pursue their self-interests and personal needs, often leading to competition and conflict. This concept reflects “universal egoism,” as it emphasizes the coexistence of individual self-interests within a structured framework that still upholds the law and order essential for society’s functioning.

Ans. (3) Plato
Explanation: Plato’s theory in The Republic posits that the soul consists of three parts (reason, spirit, and appetite) and that society should mirror this division. He theorizes that society is divided into three classes: rulers (philosophers), soldiers, and producers (workers), each corresponding to one aspect of the soul.

Ans.  (1) A complete virtue, though not absolute
Explanation:
For Aristotle, justice represents a complete virtue because it encompasses the ethical and moral principles necessary for a well-functioning society. It relates to treating others fairly and maintaining harmony within the community. However, it is not absolute because its application depends on the context and circumstances, reflecting Aristotle’s belief in the golden mean and the situational nature of virtue. Justice for Aristotle is a practical virtue aimed at achieving fairness and equity, rather than an abstract or absolute ideal.

Answer (2) Fear and self-interest
Explanation:
According to Thomas Hobbes, human behavior is driven primarily by fear (particularly the fear of death and insecurity) and self-interest (the desire to preserve oneself and achieve personal benefits). In his work Leviathan, Hobbes argued that in the state of nature, life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” due to constant fear and competition. These motivations lead individuals to form a social contract and establish a sovereign authority to ensure peace and security.

Answer: (1) Unity of thought and action
Explanation:
Karl Marx’s theory of praxis emphasizes the unity of thought and action, meaning that ideas and theories must be connected to practical actions that bring about change in the real world. For Marx, praxis involves the application of philosophical and theoretical understanding to transform society, particularly in the context of addressing class struggles and material conditions. It highlights the inseparability of reflective thought and revolutionary practice, aiming for the emancipation of humanity.

Answer: (2) Locke
Explanation: John Locke, in his Second Treatise of Government, argued that every individual possesses natural rights to “life, liberty, and estate” (or property). Locke believed that the protection of these rights was the primary purpose of government.

Answer: (2) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
Explanation: The Machiavellian state is often regarded as secular because Machiavelli placed political authority above religious authority, with politics being viewed as separate from religious considerations. However, Machiavelli did acknowledge the role of religion in maintaining political stability and order, which is why the reasoning that “religion should not be above the state” is true but does not directly explain the assertion about the secular nature of the state.

Answer: (3) 1971
Explanation: John Rawls’ influential work A Theory of Justice was first published in 1971, in which he introduced his ideas on justice, fairness, and the “original position” as a method for determining the principles of justice.

Answer: The correct sequence is: 1) C → B → D → A
C) Ancient stage
B) The feudal stage
D) The capitalist stage
A) Primitive communist stage
Explanation: According to Marx’s theory of historical materialism, human societies evolve through different stages of economic development: first the ancient stage (slave societies), then feudalism, followed by capitalism, and ultimately, communism. Marx believed communism was a final stage that would emerge after the overthrow of capitalism.

Answer: (2) John Austin
Explanation: John Austin, a legal theorist, distinguished between legal sovereignty (the authority to make and enforce laws) and political sovereignty (the ultimate power in a state). He is best known for his command theory of law, where he saw laws as commands issued by a sovereign.

Answer: (2) class contradictions were removed.
Explanation: According to Karl Marx, true equality could only be achieved when the class system was abolished, as he believed that inequality arose from the conflict between the proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie (capitalist class). Marx envisioned a classless society where these contradictions would be resolved.

Answer: (4) Rawls
Explanation: John Rawls is considered the philosopher who modernized classical liberalism into a form of welfarism with his concept of “justice as fairness.” In A Theory of Justice, he proposed principles of justice that would protect the least advantaged in society, making a case for welfare provisions in a liberal state.

Answer: (1) anarchism
Explanation: This quote is attributed to the anarchist thinker, Mikhail Bakunin. Anarchists argue that democracy, as structured in modern states, often leads to state control and limits individual freedoms, whereas they believe true freedom is the absence of all government authority.

Answer: (4) Karl Marx
Explanation: This statement reflects Karl Marx’s view of philosophy and science. He believed that philosophical speculation, as well as the pursuit of knowledge disconnected from practical action, was often futile. Marx emphasized the need for scientific materialism, which focuses on real-world conditions and class struggles, rather than abstract, idealistic thought.

Answer: (4) Right to life, liberty, and property
Explanation:
John Locke, in his political philosophy, argued that individuals have natural rights that are inherent and cannot be taken away by the government.
These include life, liberty, and property, which he saw as fundamental for human freedom and protection under the social contract.

Answer: (1) The Communist Manifesto
Explanation:
This famous line appears in The Communist Manifesto (1848), written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
It explains how history has been shaped by struggles between different classes, particularly between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class).

Answer: (3) Athens 
Explanation:
Ancient Athens (5th century BCE) is considered the birthplace of direct democracy, where citizens directly participated in decision-making through assemblies and councils.
Unlike Sparta (which had an oligarchic system), Athens allowed free male citizens to vote on laws and policies.

Answer: (3) Plato
Explanation:
Plato, a Greek philosopher, wrote Statesman (also called Politikos), where he discusses the characteristics of an ideal ruler and the nature of governance.

Answer: (1) Montesquieu
Explanation:
Montesquieu (French philosopher) wrote The Spirit of Laws (1748), in which he introduced the concept of separation of powers—legislative, executive, and judiciary—to prevent tyranny.

Answer: (4) Aristotle
Explanation:
Aristotle argued that humans naturally form societies and governments because they seek to live in a community and pursue a good life.

Answer: (2) Aristotle
Explanation:
Aristotle’s theory of justice states that fairness means treating similar individuals in a similar way while acknowledging differences.

Answer: (3) David Ricardo
Explanation:
Marx developed his theory of surplus value based on David Ricardo’s labor theory of value, which argued that labor is the source of all economic value.

Answer: (4) De Tocqueville
Explanation:
Alexis de Tocqueville, in Democracy in America, warned that majority rule in a democracy could lead to oppression of minorities.

Answer: A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4

Answer: (3) Athens and Sparta
Explanation:
The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) was fought between Athens (Delian League) and Sparta (Peloponnesian League).

Answer: (1) Popular Sovereignty
Explanation:
Rousseau’s Social Contract introduced the idea of popular sovereignty, where the people hold supreme authority over the state.

Answer: (2) Government is a necessary evil
Explanation:
Utilitarianism (by Jeremy Bentham & J.S. Mill) is based on “the greatest happiness for the greatest number.”
The idea that “government is a necessary evil” is associated with libertarianism (e.g., John Locke).

Answer: (3) Gold
Explanation:
In The Republic, Plato classifies people into three categories:
Rulers → Gold (Wisdom)
Warriors → Silver (Courage)
Producers → Bronze/Iron (Labor)

Answer: (2) Increase in quality leads to quantitative change
Explanation:
Marx’s dialectical materialism includes:
Unity and struggle of opposites
Negation of negation
Increase in quantity leads to qualitative change

Answer: (3) The monopoly of coercive power of a singular ruler
Explanation:
Hobbes’ Leviathan supports absolute sovereignty, where the ruler has complete power to maintain order.

Answer: (3) C.B. Macpherson
Explanation:
C.B. Macpherson, in The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism, argued that Hobbes’ state of nature was a system of selfish individualism.

Answer: (1) Both A and R are correct, and R is the correct explanation of A
Explanation:
Plato’s concept that “The state is the individual writ large” means that virtues in individuals reflect those in the state.

Answer: (2) D, B, A, C 
Explanation:
(D) Men enter into definite relations
(B) These relations are independent of their will
(A) They correspond to a stage of productive forces
(C) The sum of these relations forms the economic base

Answer: (1) Both statements 1 and 2 are correct
Explanation:
Plato believed the state exists for a good life.
Machiavelli saw the state as power and authority over men.

Option 3: A-III, B-I, C-IV, D-II

Explanation:

Correct Answer: (1) Individuals born with different physical and psychological propensities will be unequally efficient transformers of resources such as primary goods.
Explanation:
This is a critique of Rawls’ concept of primary goods, which assumes that all individuals will benefit equally from them. Critics argue that individuals with different abilities or disabilities may not be equally efficient in transforming primary goods into well-being, making Rawls’ theory insufficient in addressing deep inequalities.

Correct Answer: (1) A‐I, B‐III, C‐IV, D‐II
Explanation:

• The Communist Manifesto→ History of class struggles (I): The manifesto discusses how history is shaped by class struggles.
• The Critique of the Gotha Programme→ To each according to his need (III): This work discusses the principle of distribution under communism.
• The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte→ Contradictory role of the bourgeoisie (IV): This book analyzes the political developments in France and the fluctuating role of the bourgeoisie.
• Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts→ Alienation (II): This manuscript introduces the concept of alienation under capitalism.

Correct Answer: (1) Prevent contractors from adopting principles of justice that unfairly advantage themselves.
Explanation:
Rawls’ veil of ignorance is a thought experiment in which individuals designing a just society do not know their future social position, talents, or personal characteristics. This ensures that the chosen principles of justice are fair and impartial, preventing individuals from selecting rules that favor their own circumstances.

Correct Answer: (4) Entities that hold their attributes perfectly and about which knowledge is possible.
Explanation:
Plato’s Theory of Forms posits that non-material abstract forms (or ideas) represent the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. These forms are perfect, unchanging, and only intelligible through reason, as opposed to the material world, which is imperfect and constantly changing.

Correct Answer: (3) Ideology.
Explanation:
Marx uses the metaphor of a camera obscura (a dark chamber with a small hole that projects an inverted image) to describe ideology. He argues that ideology distorts people’s perception of social reality, making them see the world in a way that justifies existing power structures rather than recognizing economic and material realities.

Correct Answer: (2) Classification of constitutions
Explanation:
Nicomachean Ethics primarily focuses on virtues, friendship, justice, and the good life. Aristotle’s classification of constitutions is found in Politics, not in Nicomachean Ethics.