Thomas Hobbes’s political philosophy is rooted in the principles of natural science. He believed that human behavior can be understood through the same scientific laws that govern the physical world. This approach led him to argue for a strong, centralized authority to prevent chaos and ensure social order, as outlined in his famous work Leviathan.

The General Will represents the collective will of the people, aimed at the common good. It is not merely the sum total of individual wills or the majority will, but rather the authentic expression of the community’s interests and values.

Michael Walzer is known for his critique of liberalism, arguing that it can be self-subverting. He emphasizes the importance of community and the need for periodic communitarian correction to address the limitations of liberal individualism.

John Stuart Mill, in his work Utilitarianism, introduced the idea that some pleasures are of a higher quality than others, distinguishing between “higher” (intellectual) and “lower” (bodily) pleasures. This was a departure from Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism, which treated all pleasures as equal in quality.

In John Rawls’s concept of the “veil of ignorance,” individuals are not supposed to know their personal conception of the good, as this could bias their decision-making. Under the veil of ignorance, parties are unaware of their personal beliefs, desires, talents, social status, and position in society. This ensures that the principles of justice they choose are fair and impartial.

Hegel’s theory of the state is his most important contribution to political philosophy.

Key Points

State theory is based on the axiom that “what is rational is real, and what is real is rational.”
Hegel’s theory of the state is built on the essential premise of Reason, Spirit, or the Absolute Idea gradually emerging through a dialectical process.
A state is a super-organism in which no individual has preferences that are distinct from those of the larger unit.
Hegel’s conception of the state is a goal in itself, not a means to an end.
He argued that “all the worth which tile human being I possesses-all spiritual reality-he possesses only through the State”.
For him, The State is the Divine Idea as it exists on earth.
The state is divine, people have no rights outside of or against the state because the state is the fountain of rights.
Thus, features of Hegel’s Theory of State are state is a super-organism that is following the march of God on Earth, it is an end in itself and unchecked by any moral law as it itself is the creator of morality.

1. (i) The State cannot be understood without a thorough understanding of the Civil Society.
   • Correct: Gramsci emphasized the relationship between civil society and the state. He believed that civil society plays a crucial role in maintaining hegemony and that the state cannot be fully understood without considering the influence of civil society.
2. (ii) Civil Society is not the ensemble of organisms commonly called ‘Private’.
   • Correct: Gramsci distinguished civil society from the private sphere. For him, civil society encompasses a range of institutions and organizations (like media, schools, and churches) that influence public life, but it is not merely the private domain.
3. (iii) It is in Civil Society that the struggle for hegemony takes place.
   • Correct: Gramsci posited that the struggle for hegemony occurs primarily within civil society. This is where consent is formed and where the dominant ideologies are challenged and negotiated.
4. (iv) He derived the terms Civil Society and Political Society from Hegel.
   • Incorrect: While Gramsci was influenced by Hegelian thought, he developed his concepts of civil society and political society in a way that diverged from Hegel’s original usage. Gramsci’s interpretation does not directly derive from Hegel in a straightforward manner.

Based on this analysis, the correct statements are (i), (ii), and (iii). Therefore, the correct answer is:

3. Only (i), (ii), and (iii).

• (i) All the mass phenomena of history are determined by economic conditions: This reflects the core of historical materialism, where economic factors (modes of production) primarily shape historical developments and social structures.
• (ii) Production is the most important of all human activities: Marx emphasized that production and economic activity are foundational to human society and shape other aspects of life, including social relations and ideology.
• (iii) Men in association produce more than men in isolation: Marx believed that human beings are inherently social and that productive capacity increases significantly through cooperation and social organization.
• (iv) Religion is the opium of the people: This famous phrase by Marx reflects his view that religion serves as a tool to maintain the status quo by providing an illusion of comfort to the oppressed, distracting them from addressing their material conditions.

• Therefore, the answer is 4. (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv).

The Dialectic method is a conversation between two or more people who hold opposing viewpoints on a subject yet want to establish the truth by reasoned discussion.

Key Points

The dialectic method was employed by various philosophers including Plato’s discussion on Justice, Karl Marx’s dialectical materialism, and the Hegelian dialectical method.
The ancient Greek philosopher Plato was identified with the first strands of dialectics.
Plato coined the term to describe the art of debate, in which participants endeavour to reach a consensus by exchanging logical arguments.
The Republic written by Plato is an excellent example of this type of debate.
Thus, the Dialectic method was used for the first time in the writing of Plato

The correct answer is 2. Hobbes.

This phrase comes from Thomas Hobbes’s work Leviathan, where he describes the state of nature and the condition of human life without political order or authority. Hobbes argues that in such a state, life is characterized by chaos and violence, leading to a need for a strong, centralized authority to ensure peace and security.

The correct answer is 3. Hegel.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel believed that art, religion, and philosophy are interconnected forms of human expression that ultimately aim to understand and articulate the absolute truth. He argued that while they differ in their methods and forms of representation, their underlying purpose is the same: to explore and reveal the nature of reality and human experience.

The correct answer is 3. Frantz Fanon.

Black Skin, White Masks is a seminal work by Frantz Fanon, a Martinican psychiatrist and philosopher. In this book, Fanon explores the psychological effects of colonialism and racism on identity, highlighting the internal conflicts faced by individuals in colonized societies.

The correct answer is 2. Mao Zedong.

Mao Zedong emphasized the importance of political work in relation to economic activities, asserting that political leadership and guidance are essential for the success of economic efforts. He believed that without a strong political foundation, economic work would struggle to achieve its objectives.

The correct answer is 1. individual.

In John Rawls’s theory, particularly in his work A Theory of Justice, the concept of “justice as fairness” is rooted in the idea of individual rights and rationality. Rawls emphasizes the moral equality of individuals and the need to consider their interests when determining the principles of justice that should govern society.

The correct answer is 2. A Vindication of the Rights of Women with strictures on political and moral subjects.

This is the full title of Mary Wollstonecraft’s influential work, in which she argues for the education and rights of women, advocating for gender equality and critiquing the limitations placed on women by society.