“First law of ecology is everything is related to everything else” – Barry Commoner
Introduction
Ecologism, a robust ideology crystallizing since the 1960s, traces its intellectual lineage back centuries, yet its autonomy as a set of ideas and actionable principles is a recent phenomenon. Distinct from environmentalism, where the safeguarding of the environment primarily stems from concerns about its repercussions on humanity, ecologists draw value directly from ‘ecology’ or ‘nature’ itself. This dichotomy sets the stage for understanding the unique perspective that underlies the ecological movement.
Table of Contents
Origins and Development
The term ‘ecology’ found its genesis in 1866 when German Zoologist Ernst Haeckel coined it, though its widespread adoption only commenced in the 1970s. Linking ‘ecology’ to green parties, particularly the pioneering German Greens, has been pivotal, shaping the term to embody specific policies rather than remaining confined to broader environmental concerns. The growth of green ideology is intrinsically tied to the advance of industrialization and urbanization, fueling ecological sensitivities, especially among the youth. Pivotal works like Rachel Carson’s ‘The Silent Spring’ (1962) and subsequent literature, such as Ehrlich and Harriman’s ‘How to Be a Survival’ (1971) and the Club of Rome’s ‘The Limits to Growth’ (1972), further propelled the emergence of ecologism onto the global stage.
Models of Ecologism
Spaceship Earth Model:
This model is often associated with the ecological perspective that views the Earth as a closed system with limited resources. The term “Spaceship Earth” was popularized by R. Buckminster Fuller and later used by others, including the environmentalist movement.
In the spaceship model, the emphasis is on the finite nature of resources and the need for sustainable practices. Advocates of this perspective argue for responsible resource management, conservation, and the importance of considering the long-term consequences of human activities on the planet.
Cowboy Mentality or Tragedy of the Commons:
The term “cowboy mentality” is sometimes used metaphorically to describe an exploitative approach to natural resources. It can be associated with the “Tragedy of the Commons,” a concept introduced by economist Garrett Hardin in 1968.
The tragedy of the commons refers to a situation where individuals, acting in their self-interest, deplete shared resources, leading to the degradation of the common property. The metaphorical “cowboy” is someone who exploits resources without regard for the long-term consequences, assuming that resources are endless.
The Core Themes of Ecologism
Ecology and Human Interaction
Ecological thinkers challenge the traditional view of humankind as the ‘master’ of nature, asserting that our relentless pursuit of material wealth has disrupted the delicate ‘balance of nature,’ placing ecosystems crucial for human life at risk. The looming threat of environmental disaster is attributed to this interference, prompting a reevaluation of humanity’s role in preserving the natural world.
Green thinkers, while united in their ecological perspective, diverge in their conclusions and applications. Arne Naess identifies a significant schism within the environmental movement, distinguishing between ‘shallow ecology’ and ‘deep ecology.’ The latter contends that nature holds equal importance to the human species, asserting that the purpose of human life is to sustain nature rather than exploit it for self-serving gains.
Holism
This term ‘holism’ was coined in 1926 by Jan Smuts, the twice Prime Minister of South Africa. He used it to describe the idea that the natural world could only be understood as a whole and not through its individual parts, therefore ‘the whole’ is more important than the parts (humans). It is against science.
In The Tao of Physics, Capra drew attention to important parallels between the ideas of modern physics and those of eastern mysticism (Hinduism, Taoism, Buddhism) which have long preached the oneness of all things.
Gaia Hypothesis: A New Look at Life on Earth, James Lovelock developed the idea that plants themselves are alive and gave them the name ‘Gaia’ after the Greek Goddess of the earth. It sees the living and non-living world as one
Sustainability
Environmental visionaries like Herman Daly and Kenneth Boulding challenge the notion of perpetual growth, labeling it as a misguided pursuit leading to environmental disasters. Daly criticizes ‘growth mania,’ advocating for sustainable practices. Boulding metaphorically views Earth as a spaceship with finite resources, promoting the idea of limited and exhaustible wealth. E.F. Schumacher’s ‘Small is Beautiful’ introduces a Buddhist economic philosophy based on ‘right livelihood,’ emphasizing spiritual liberation over material gain.
Environmental Ethics
One ethical issue is concern or our moral obligations towards future generations. This can be called cross-generational justice and this can be soon as a ‘natural duty’ and an extension of a moral concern for our children. Another ethical issue is that other animals and organisms are equally important as human beings. This could be seen as the form of ‘animal rights.’ In the Tom Regan Case it was stated that All creatures that are ‘the subject of a life’ quality for rights.
Goodin tried to develop a ‘Green Theory a Value’. It holds that resources should be valued precisely because they result from natural processes rather than from human activities. In the Sand County Almanac, Aldo Leo bold says “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity. Stability and beauty of the biotic community. Therefore, he focused on land ethics by emphasizing on Biocentric equality
Self-Actualization
Green Theorists developed a critique of materialism and consumerism therefore since the 1960’s environmental issues are associated with post-materialism. Abraham Maslow presented a structure of ‘hierarchy of needs’ which places the need for esteem and self-actualization above material or economic needs. It is committed to a new left agenda that rejects the hierarchical, materialistic and patriarchal values of conventional society. Eric Fromm in his book “To have or to be portrayed”- ‘having’ as an attitude of mind that seeks fulfillment in acquisition and control and is reflected in consumerism and in the materialistic society. Whereas ‘Being’ leads to personal growth and spiritual awareness.
Types of Ecologism
Green Socialism
Drawing on Marxist analysis of capitalism, Green Socialism, exemplified by German sociologist Rudolph Bahro, contends that capitalism is the fundamental cause of environmental issues.
The solution proposed by Green Socialists involves either abolishing capitalism or regulating it to address environmental concerns. They argue that communal ownership of wealth would ensure its use in the collective interest, promoting humanity’s long-term well-being.
Green Anarchism
Preceding Rachel Carson’s “The Silent Spring,” Murray Bookchin introduced “Our Synthetic Environment” in 1962, establishing a connection between anarchist ideas and ecological principles.
Anarchists posit that a stateless society fosters harmony through mutual respect and social solidarity, paralleling the spontaneous balance found in nature. Proposing decentralized societies organized around communal principles, Green Anarchists envision communities closely connected to nature, striving for high degrees of self-sufficiency.
Eco-Feminism
Rooted in the belief that patriarchal structures are the source of ecological degradation, Ecofeminism asserts that nature is endangered due to male dominance and institutions of male power. Mary Daly’s “Gyn/Ecology” (1979) emphasizes the inherent difference between men and women, arguing that aligning with ‘female nature’ enables women to liberate themselves from patriarchal culture. Eco-Feminism contends that while women are intrinsically connected to nature, men’s relationship with nature is shaped by cultural factors, making ecological destruction and gender inequality interconnected.
Ecologism in the 21st Century
In the era of globalization, issues such as global warming and the extinction of plant and animal species have gained prominence. The modern Green Movement exhibits a strong global orientation, aligning with broader anti-globalization and anti-capitalist movements to address contemporary environmental challenges.
Shallow & Deep Ecology: Exploring Environmental Ethics
Shallow Ecology and Deep Ecology represent two pivotal streams in the realm of environmental ethics, each offering distinct perspectives on humanity’s relationship with nature.
Understanding Shallow Ecology:
Shallow Ecology, a term introduced by Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess in his 1973 essay, “The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movements: A Summary,” is a philosophical and political position emphasizing that environmental preservation should only be pursued to the extent that it serves human interests. This perspective rejects ecocentrism and biocentrism, asserting that nature’s value lies solely in its utility to humans. Shallow ecologists adhere to four
key principles:
- Rational beings (humans) are the only life-forms of value.
- Humans can benefit from the environment.
- If environmental damage hampers human needs, it is a cause for concern.
- Protecting the environment is justified if harm to the environment will also harm humans.
Deep Ecology: A Paradigm Shift
In contrast, Deep Ecology challenges the anthropocentric worldview, positing that all living things have an equal right to live and flourish. This perspective insists on treating the interests of other living beings as seriously as those of humans, emphasizing the intrinsic value of nature. Advocates of Deep Ecology, including Arne Naess, contend that climate change is ethically wrong because it adversely affects the well-being of all living beings. The core tenets of Deep Ecology include ecocentrism or biocentrism, advocating for a minimalistic life and embracing the concept of Natural Self.
Gaia Hypothesis: Earth as a Self-Regulating System
The Gaia Hypothesis, formulated by chemist James Lovelock and microbiologist Lynn Margulis in the 1970s, proposes that Earth’s organisms and inorganic surroundings form a self-regulating complex system. This system, named Gaia after the Greek goddess of Earth, contributes to the stability of global temperature, ocean salinity, oxygen levels, and other factors essential for life. The Gaia Hypothesis views Earth as a living entity, with assumptions that include the Earth being a self-regulating system and having a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life.
The political manifestation of the Gaia Hypothesis is the Gaia Movement, comprising non-governmental organizations across various countries. These organizations share a common concern for promoting sustainable living within the Earth’s “living system.” William Irwin Thompson’s 1988 book, “Gaia, a Way of Knowing: Political Implications of the New Biology,” further explores the political dimensions of the Gaia theory.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the diverse ideologies within ecologism, ranging from Shallow Ecology’s human-centric approach to Deep Ecology’s holistic perspective, exemplify the dynamic discourse shaping environmental ethics. As humanity confronts 21st-century challenges like global warming, these paradigms offer nuanced solutions. The Gaia Hypothesis, with its view of Earth as a self-regulating entity, further adds depth to the discussion. The Gaia Movement’s political implications underscore the urgency of sustainable living. In this ever-evolving landscape, ecologism stands as a critical guide, urging humanity to rethink its relationship with the environment for a harmonious future.
Some Important Books on Ecologism
- “Gaia, A Way of Knowing: Political Implications of the New Biology” – William Irwin Thompson
- “Environmental Citizenship” – Andy Dobson
- “Constitutional Environmental rights” – Tim Hayward
- “How to be a Survivor” – Paul Ehrlich and Harriman
- “Blueprint of Survival” – Goldsmith
- “Small is Beautiful” – E.F. Schumpeter
Read More:
