Introduction

Kautilya, also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta, emerged as a prominent figure in the 4th century BC, serving as the Minister in the kingdom of Chandragupta Maurya from 317 BC to 293 BC. Revered as a ‘saint,’ ‘ ‘King Maker,’ and a ‘devoted nationalist,’ Kautilya’s legacy has often drawn comparisons with the likes of Plato and Machiavelli. A luminary in economics and politics, his most significant contributions are encapsulated in two seminal works: Arthashastra and Chanakyaniti.

Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth and Statecraft

Kautilya’s profound insights are encapsulated in his monumental work, Arthashastra. This treatise, composed in the 4th century BC, delves into various facets of governance, including polity, economy, society, war, diplomacy, and international relations divided into 15 parts, 150 Chapters and 180 events. Later Arthashastra was discovered by R.Shamstry in 1905.

Artha signifies the science elucidating the means of acquiring and sustaining wealth, while Shastra refers to the methods employed to safeguard this wealth. Consequently, Arthashastra embodies the principles of effective governance.

Kautilya perceived the state as the highest organization, and he advocated for the king to fulfill his duties as outlined in his book. In Arthashastra, Kautilya provided 34 types of government. Rooted in realism, Kautilya’s work is often likened to Machiavelli’s thoughts in Western philosophy. Max Weber called Arthashastra “Radical Machiavellism”. Notably, he served as the chief adviser to the Indian King Chandragupta, the inaugural ruler of the Mauryan Empire. Kautilya, born into a Brahman family in North India, also worked as a professor of political science and economics at the University of Taxila. His profound knowledge extended to the Vedas and Vedic literature.

Kautilya’s comprehensive work, Arthashastra, covers a wide array of topics, including diplomacy, war strategy, law, governance, taxation, fortification, coinage, manufacturing, trade, administration, and espionage. Widely regarded as one of the most significant sources of Indian political thought, Kautilya’s Arthashastra remains a foundational text in understanding ancient Indian governance and philosophy.

Kautilya on State

Rejecting the notion of the ‘Divine Origin of the Monarch,’ Kautilya saw monarchy as a human institution, overseen by a human ruler. He envisioned the king not only as a protector of Dharma but also as a servant of the people, receiving taxes for services rendered. He regarded King as Yogakeshema that aims to achieve spiritual development and welfare state.

In Kautilya’s conceptualization of the state, two objectives were emphasized: the practice of Dharma and the enjoyment of private property rights, known as Bhog. He provided an extensive list of duties that the King was obligated to fulfill, with the paramount responsibilities being Rakshana (Protection) and Palana (Nurture). He gave prime importance to maintaining agriculture as a backbone of the economy. According to him, the state must have enough cultivable land to sustain its people well.

The source of the King’s authority, as elucidated by Kautilya, was derived from three distinct pillars. Firstly, Prabhushakti, signifying the power emanating from the army and treasury; secondly, Mantashakti, denoting the influence derived from the counsel of the Ministers; and lastly, Utsahshakti, representing the charisma that contributed to the King’s leadership. Through these dimensions, Kautilya articulated a comprehensive framework for the functioning and responsibilities of the monarch within the societal structure.

According to Kautilya there are four fundamentals of state governance. They are

• Anvikasi (Philosophy) – “Lamp of all sciences” 
• Trayi (The three vedas) – Cultural Context 
• Varta – Economic Policy 
• Dandaneeti (Science of Government and Politics)

The Saptanga Theory: Seven Elements of State

Kautilya articulated the Saptanga Theory, identifying seven essential elements for a well-functioning state. Described as the ‘Doctrine of 7 Prakritis,’ these elements, akin to the limbs of a body, included the ruler (Swami) as the soul, and six other elements constituting the body.

1. Swami (The Ruler)

The central and pivotal figure in Kautilya’s political philosophy is the Swami, denoting the ruler or monarch. Positioned at the core, the Swami holds the most significant role in the governance structure. In essence, Swami is synonymous with the term “Monarch.” According to Kautilya, the Swami must possess a combination of erudition and courage, emphasizing the importance of a ruler who is well-versed and brave. Power is strength and strength changes the mind.

Kautilya grants extensive authority to the Swami but underscores the imperative that this power should be wielded for the welfare of the subjects. The king, as Swami, is advised to regard his subjects as his own children, with the happiness of the populace being directly linked to the ruler’s own happiness – encapsulated in the aphorism “Praja Sukham Sukhe Rajya.”

2. Amatya (The Minister)

Amatya, or the ministerial role, is a critical component in the governance framework outlined by Kautilya. The minister is tasked with assisting the Swami in day-to-day activities. According to Kautilya’s prescription, Amatyas should be Brahmins possessing knowledge of the Vedas, born into noble families and native to the land. The king is advised to consult Amatyas on pivotal matters such as tax collection and state defense.

Despite entrusting significant responsibilities to Amatyas, Kautilya advocates for continuous vigilance over their loyalty. He suggests the appointment of three Amatyas, as a precaution against potential conspiracies, highlighting the delicate balance required in managing ministerial power.

3. Durga (The Fortified Capital)

Durga, symbolizing both offensive and defensive power, assumes a crucial role in Kautilya’s political architecture. Kautilya places great emphasis on forts as vital components for the defense of the empire. The strategist delineates four types of forts – Water fort (Audik), Hill fort (Parvat), Desert fort (Dhanvan), and Forest fort (Van) – each strategically positioned across the territory.

According to Kautilya, a state should maintain an adequate number of forts strategically located to safeguard its borders. Durga, in this context, becomes a tangible representation of the state’s defensive capabilities.

4. Janapada (The Population/Territory)

Janapada, referring to the territory inhabited by people, holds significance as the source of revenue and essential commodities. Kautilya emphasizes the king’s responsibility to care for the Janapada, recognizing its pivotal role in sustaining the state’s economic viability.

5. Bala (The Army)

Kautilya categorizes six types of armies, stressing the importance of a robust and hereditary Kshatriya army as the cornerstone of state security. The Bala, or military force, is deemed a critical requisite for the stability and protection of the state.

6. Kosha (The Treasury)

The Kosha, or treasury, is deemed essential by Kautilya to support the king in undertaking welfare functions and addressing emergencies or natural calamities. It serves as a financial reservoir, ensuring the state’s ability to meet various financial demands.

7. Mitra (Allies)

Mitra, or allies, holds symbolic importance in Kautilya’s political philosophy, signifying the strength of the king. Kautilya differentiates between two types of Mitras – Sahaja, derived from familial ties and proximity, and Kritrima, acquired for wealth and life protection. The strategist contends that allies of the first category hold superior significance in bolstering the king’s strength.

Kautilya’s Ideas on Foreign Policy

Kautilya’s vision for foreign policy was marked by a strategic and pragmatic approach aimed at elevating the king to the status of ‘Chakravarti Samrat’—the one aspiring for universal dominance. Describing the king as ‘Vijigishu,’ or the aspirant for victory, Kautilya asserted that war, framed as Kshatriya Dharma and Rajadharma, was an integral aspect of the ruler’s duties. Notably, he advocated for the declaration of expeditions as the primary action following a king’s coronation.

Kautilya outlined several foundational principles in foreign policy, providing a roadmap for effective statecraft:

Four Fold Policy:

• Sam (Peace): Advocates diplomacy and peaceful relations.
• Dam (Economic Diplomacy): Emphasizes economic cooperation as a diplomatic tool.
• Danda (Coercive Diplomacy): Recommends the use of force when necessary.
• Bheda (Use of Espionage): Suggests employing espionage to gain strategic advantages.

Shadgunya Niti (Six Fold Policy):

• Sandhis (Peace): Proposes seeking peace when faced with a stronger enemy.
• Vigraha (War): Acknowledges the perpetual state of war and the pursuit of power.
• Asana (Neutrality): Recommends neutrality when power balances are equal.
• Yana (Preparing for War): Advocates mobilizing forces in readiness for military exercises.
• Samsraya (Alliance): Encourages forming alliances with those sharing similar objectives.
• Dvaidhibhava (Dual Policy): Suggests maintaining friendship with one enemy while engaging in war with another.

Mandal Siddhanta (Theory of Circles):

The Mandal Theory, a geo-strategic doctrine shaping war strategy and interstate relations, delineates 12 kings or circles of state to underscore the importance of maintaining a delicate balance of power. Kautilya mentioned mandala theory in the 6th part of Arthahsastra, 2nd Chapter. Key to this theory is the imperative for Vijigishu, the main king, to meticulously assess the positions of both enemies and allies, evaluating 72 elements of sovereignty before engaging in warfare.

Kings in Front 

• Ari – Neighbor. He is a natural enemy.
• Mitra – Ari’s immediate neighbor is the Mitra of Vijigishu. 
• Ari Mitra 
• Mitra Mitra 
• Ari Mitra Mitra 

Four kings in the back (Parshva) 

• Parshva Nigrah 
• Akranda – Friend in the back 
• Parshva Nigrah Sara 
• Akranda Sara 

Kautilya mentions two more kings

• Madhyama – Buffer State. Vijigishu should try to bring Madhyama on his side. 
• Udasina – Neutral State. Vijigishu should try to bring Udasina under his control. 

Kautilya, the proponent of the Mandal Theory, underscores the pivotal role of ambassadors in foreign policy. He advises the king to select a charismatic and capable ambassador, emphasizing their crucial significance in fostering diplomatic relations.

Types of Wars According to Kautilya

Kautilya, the ancient Indian strategist, delineates four distinct types of wars in his teachings:

• Kutayudha (Tactical Fighting):

Kautilya emphasizes the significance of tactical warfare, where strategic acumen and on-the-ground decision-making play pivotal roles.

• Mantrayudha (Diplomatic War):

The concept of diplomatic war, as presented by Kautilya, underscores the importance of employing shrewd negotiations and political maneuvering to achieve strategic objectives.

• Prakashayudha (Open War):

Open warfare, according to Kautilya, involves direct and overt military confrontation, with an emphasis on the conventional aspects of armed conflict.

• Tushnim Yudh (Secret Agents War):

Kautilya introduces the notion of covert warfare, where the use of secret agents and clandestine operations becomes a strategic tool in achieving military objectives.

Types of Victories as Outlined by Kautilya

In addition to the classifications of wars, Kautilya outlines three distinct types of victories:

• Dharma Vijay (Righteous Conquest)

This victory is achieved through adherence to righteous principles and ethical conduct in both strategy and execution.

• Lobha Vijay (Acquisitive Conquest)

Kautilya acknowledges the role of acquisitive conquest, where territorial gains and resource accumulation are prioritized as key elements of victory.

• Asura Vijay (Demonic/Unfair Conquest)

This type of conquest, according to Kautilya, involves achieving victory through less ethical means, possibly resorting to unfair tactics or strategies.

Role of Ambassadors in Foreign Policy

Kautilya elaborates on the role of ambassadors and their qualities in shaping foreign policy. Ambassadors, as per Kautilya’s teachings, hold a crucial position in foreign affairs. He recommends the selection of ambassadors based on physical attractiveness, emphasizing the impact of personal charisma in diplomatic endeavors. The ambassador’s role involves representing the king with diplomacy and tact, contributing significantly to the overall success of foreign policy initiatives.

Utilizing Religion in State Affairs

Kautilya proposes the strategic use of religion in the affairs of the state. The king can employ religious figures or sadhus as messengers to the enemy king, conveying the message that unfavorable times lie ahead. This psychological strategy aims to weaken the enemy king’s resolve by leveraging religious beliefs and superstitions, influencing his state of mind.

Kautilya on Corruption

In Kautilya’s extensive writings on ancient India, he candidly acknowledges that corruption was an inevitable part of political life. His pragmatic approach towards corruption is rooted in a keen understanding of human nature and the challenges faced by public officials, particularly in the misappropriation of funds by magistrates and judges.

Why Corruption is a Problem:

Corruption, according to Kautilya, directly impacts the material well-being and generates disaffection among the subjects, potentially leading them to align with enemies to overthrow the king.

However, Kautilya holds that corruption is inherently unavoidable, citing the following reasons:

• Human Nature: Humans are susceptible to corruption, and resisting temptation is exceedingly difficult.

• Public Officials: Kautilya acknowledges the impracticality of expecting public officials holding money not to use it for private purposes.

• Inevitability: Drawing a metaphor, he asserts that it is as impossible to avoid corruption as it is to resist tasting honey or poison at the tip of the tongue.

Tackling Corruption:

Kautilya recognizes the difficulty in addressing corruption, comparing it to detecting the movement of birds in the sky. He outlines forty ways in which officials can engage in embezzlement.

To tackle corruption, Kautilya proposes a multifaceted approach, including:

• Right-sizing the Bureaucracy: Ensuring an appropriate balance in the size of the bureaucracy.
• Regular Transfers: Transferring officials at regular intervals before they can exploit loopholes.
• Internal Scrutiny: Establishing internal scrutiny and surveillance mechanisms within offices.
• Suchaks (Whistle-blowers): Encouraging and rewarding whistle-blowers who expose corruption.
• Fines and Punishment: Imposing fines and punishments on corrupt officials and compelling them to repay those affected by their corruption.
• Public Humiliation: Publicly humiliating corrupt officials as a deterrent.
• Punishing the Entire Chain: Extending punishment to the entire chain, including the Dayak (bribe-giver), Pratigraha (money-receiver), and Nidhayak (money-keeper).

Kautilya on Justice

Kautilya advocated for a just and perhaps idealistic system of governance. He emphasized the significance of human rights, particularly in the context of the invaded ruler and his minister. According to Kautilya, criminal justice and war justice should be administered by the king, who would mete out punishments to the guilty to safeguard against social unrest and dissatisfaction. He placed considerable importance on Dundaniti, encompassing the protection, acquisition, augmentation, and distribution of property. Kautilya asserted that sovereignty, a crucial component, must be safeguarded by the state, with the ultimate responsibility resting upon the king.

Kautilya also provided four principle of Justice –

• Righteousness
• Evidence
• History of the Case
• Prevalent Law

Kautilya and Machiavelli

While Kautilya belonged to ancient India, Machiavelli hailed from 16th-century Italy, leading to a tradition of comparing the two political theorists. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru even dubbed Kautilya as the “Indian Machiavelli.”

Similarities between Kautilya and Machiavelli:

• Realism: Both are realists in their approach to politics.
• Corruptible Human Nature: Both believe in the corruptibility of human nature.
• Expansionist Foreign Policy: Both support an expansionist foreign policy.
• Law and Order: Both aim to establish law and order, protect the nation, and promote progress.
• Use of Religion: Both sanction the use of religion in the interest of the nation.
• Permitting Immoral Means: Both permit the use of immoral means for political ends.

Differences between Kautilya and Machiavelli:

• Time and Space: They belong to different times and geographical spaces.
• Dharma and Danda: In Kautilya’s philosophy, there is no strict separation between Dharma (moral duty) and Danda (coercion). The king is not above Dharma, and he upholds the Varna system. In contrast, Machiavelli’s Prince is portrayed as more harmless.
• Form of Government: Kautilya supports monarchy, while Machiavelli id

Quotes of Kautilya 

• “Every neighboring state is an enemy and the enemy’s enemy is a friend.” 
• “Just as it is impossible to know when a swimming fish is drinking water, so it is impossible to find out when a government servant is stealing money” 
• “The arrow shot by the archer may or may not kill a single person. But stratagems devised by a wise man can kill even babies in the womb.”
• “Never make friends with people who are above or below you in status. Such friendships will never give you any happiness.” 
• “Education is the best friend. An educated person is respected everywhere. Education beats beauty and youth.” 

Conclusion

In conclusion, Kautilya epitomizes the realist strand of Indian Political Thought, with his seminal work, Arthashastra, standing as a pinnacle in political science and public administration. Widely acclaimed for its comprehensive coverage, the treatise delves into every facet of human life and related activities. Kautilya’s pragmatic approach to statecraft cements his legacy, offering timeless insights that transcend temporal and geographical boundaries, making his contributions enduring and invaluable to the understanding of governance and political dynamics. Arthashastra remains a beacon guiding scholars and statesmen through its nuanced exploration of political principles and administration, solidifying Kautilya’s position as a luminary in the realm of political philosophy.

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