Niccolò Machiavelli, the Renaissance thinker whose profound insights into politics and power continue to captivate and intrigue generations of scholars and leaders.
Introduction:
Machiavelli, born in Florence, Italy, in 1469, stands as a pivotal figure of the Renaissance, evoking both admiration and criticism. As a champion of civic republicanism, his ideas have significantly shaped the thoughts of subsequent thinkers. Antonio Gramsci commends Machiavelli for distinguishing politics from ethics, emphasizing his pragmatic approach to governance over abstract philosophical ideals. His contributions heralded a new intellectual era, leading Maxey to designate him as the “First Modern Political Thinker.”
The Renaissance was marked by various forces that disrupted the concept of a unified Christian order. Economic growth fostered commerce and urbanization, while innovations like the printing press revolutionized communication. This period also saw a transition from barter to monetary systems, alongside groundbreaking scientific and geographical discoveries. The rise of centralized states with distinct national languages, a renewed respect for scientific inquiry, and demographic shifts contributed to the formation of a secular order.
Universities emerged, challenging the Church’s educational monopoly and promoting literacy and the revival of the human spirit. Individualism and humanism flourished as central themes. Jacob Burckhardt noted that the essence of the Renaissance lay in the “new man,” who pursued glory and self-realization over religious asceticism. Harold Laski remarked on this remarkable transformation, stating that the essence of the Renaissance is found in Machiavelli’s writings. Machiavelli depicted the evolving nature of the state by understanding the complexities of statecraft, where decisions were influenced by political realities rather than religious doctrines or idealized concepts of governance. He is recognized as the father of political realism, prioritizing the practical aspects of politics.
Table of Contents
Influences on Machiavelli
“Machiavelli was the child of his times” – Dunning
“The whole of Renaissance is in Machiavelli.” – Laski
“Machiavelli was narrowly dated and narrowly located.” – Sabine
Machiavelli: Child of his time
Niccolò Machiavelli, born in Florence in 1469 to a wealthy family, was well-educated for a political career. He rose quickly in government and gained diplomatic experience through missions abroad. However, in 1513, political turmoil in the Florentine Republic led to his downfall, including a year in prison. After being released, Machiavelli was forced to retire from politics.
During this time, he wrote influential works, most notably The Prince and Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy. His writings reflected a pragmatic approach to politics, often advocating for the use of ruthless tactics if necessary. Machiavelli believed that political leaders were often driven by self-interest rather than public good, influenced by the chaotic state of Italy, which was divided into five regions and plagued by foreign domination.
The Catholic Church’s desire to maintain power further hindered Italy’s unification. Inspired by the idea of a unified Italy under a strong monarchy, similar to France and Spain, Machiavelli’s thoughts marked a transition from medieval to modern political theory. Machiavelli, according to Dunning, “stood on the borderline between the Middle Ages and the Modern Ages.
Let’s discuss some key developments influenced his thought
Renaissance
The Renaissance, known as the rebirth of logic and civilizational values, revitalized the spirit of inquiry and humanism, which found expression in Machiavelli’s ideas. At its core was the emergence of a new individual driven by self-interest, seeking glory and fame. This modern individual became the focus of Machiavelli’s philosophy. Concurrently, the notion of a modern state, powerful and pervasive, developed, shaping Machiavelli’s understanding of statecraft.
Reformation
The Reformation, marked by the separation of the public and private spheres in religion, led to the rise of secularism and the separation of church and state. These developments significantly influenced Machiavelli’s political thought, earning him the title of the Father of European Secularism.
Breakdown of Feudalism
While the old feudal order crumbled, the emergence of the territorial nation-state as a sovereign entity was still in its infancy. Machiavelli’s preference for common people over nobility reflected the changing times.
Rise of Nation-State
Machiavelli was deeply concerned with Italy’s need to become a strong nation-state, making Italian unification a primary objective. His dream was to see a united, regenerated, and glorious Italy, requiring the defense and preservation of the state and its people. Machiavelli’s emphasis on the spirit of his times is evident in his advocacy for a national army.
Rise of Capitalism
Machiavelli’s portrayal of human nature as self-centered, materialistic, and possessive mirrors the psychology of the emerging bourgeois class.
Important Works of Machiavelli
- Art of war (1521) – It is a classic on theory of war and Military in the west. It explains the relation between war and politics in Machiavelli’s political thought.
- History of Florence (1525) – It talks about Machiavelli’s work in the city of Florence and the forces which shaped its history.
- The Discourses (1531) – Here Machiavelli has described Republicanism. His criticism of feudal order and nobility is reflected in his book.
- The Prince (1532) – Machiavelli’s book ‘Prince’ is one of the best books written on statecraft (Art of Politics). He is compared to Chanakya in this regard. Machiavelli in Prince gives advice to the Prince (ruler) about ruling the states in a realist manner.
Methodology of Machiavelli
Machiavelli was deeply influenced by Aristotle, valuing historical methods over church teachings. He dismissed religious doctrines, believing human nature and its problems remain constant across time. Thus, he focused on real political situations rather than abstract constitutional theories. His analysis was rooted in the conditions of his own era, making him a keen observer and realist.
According to Sabine, Machiavelli used history to support conclusions he reached independently, and Dunning described his work as emphasizing the “art of government” rather than a theory of the state. While narrower in scope than Aristotle, Machiavelli’s insights into political dynamics reveal strengths and weaknesses in situations, offering practical judgments on policy limitations and event forecasts.
His pragmatic views, such as “might is right” and “the end justifies the means,” suggest that he prioritized outcomes over methods. Often considered the Father of Political Realism, he embraced a cyclical view of history, emphasizing psychology and historical patterns. The Prince focuses on state security, while The Discourses delves into liberty.
Political Ideas of Machiavelli
On Human Nature/Universal Egoism
Machiavelli’s political philosophy, alongside his concept of “moral indifference,” is “Universal Egoism.” He rejected the idea of inherent goodness in human nature, arguing that all individuals are fundamentally selfish and driven by egoism. For Machiavelli, fear is a more powerful motivator than love, with the desire for security being the primary concern of human behavior. Human nature is aggressive and acquisitive; people strive to keep what they have and seek more, leading to constant competition due to the scarcity of resources.
To maintain security, a ruler must embody fear. A prince who is feared understands how to relate to his subjects and ensures their safety. Machiavelli noted that individuals often misjudge their hopes and desires, suggesting that balancing opposing interests is essential for a stable society.
During Machiavelli’s time, Italy was rife with corruption, violence, and inequality. He believed that the establishment of an absolute monarchy with despotic powers was necessary to restore order. He emphasized that rulers must understand human nature, which remains consistent throughout history, noting traits like selfishness and ingratitude. He famously remarked that “people could forget a father’s loss but not the loss of their property. Consequently, he concluded that individuals prioritize their self-interest, supporting a ruler only as long as their own interests are met, highlighting the need for rulers to remain attentive to their subjects’ needs.
On Morality
Machiavelli is renowned for his assertion that in politics, ends justify means. He firmly separated religion and politics, as well as ethics and politics, establishing the autonomy of politics from these moral frameworks. He argued that political actions should be evaluated based on political standards rather than religious or ethical ones. What may be considered ethnically or religiously wrong can be politically correct in Machiavelli’s view.
To illustrate this, Machiavelli introduced the concept of “Dual Morality”. According to this concept, the morality of a prince differs from that of a common person. While an ordinary individual may be willing to sacrifice their life for their principles, a prince cannot afford to sacrifice the nation-state for personal principles. Here Machiavelli gave the idea of “Flexible Disposition”, which states that Prince must act as per demand of fate and circumstances. The morality of a prince, as defined by Machiavelli, revolves around ensuring the security and preservation of the nation and its people.
“There is nothing like ethics for Prince. He is everything”. – The originality of Machiavelli written by Berlin.
On Religion
Machiavelli did not hold a stance against religion itself but rather took issue with the institutionalized Church of his time. He saw the Church as a corrupt entity and attributed Italy’s lack of unification partly to its influence. Consequently, he advocated for a separation between the Church and the state, aiming to prevent the Church from guiding governmental affairs.
Machiavelli’s approach to religion was utilitarian in nature. He advised princes to utilize religion in the interest of the nation. He viewed religion as a disciplinary force that could assist rulers in governing their people effectively. Machiavelli even recommended that a prince should maintain a public appearance of religiosity, even if the prince personally lacked faith. He believed that people preferred their rulers to be religious.
On State and Its Preservation
Machiavelli regarded the state as the highest authority to which subjects should wholeheartedly submit. He believed that the prosperity of the subjects was the yardstick for evaluating the success or failure of a state. In his view, a successful state was one ruled by a single leader, favoring monarchy over aristocracy. He emphasized the importance of a reliable army composed of native troops instead of relying on foreign soldiers.
While Machiavelli considered a republican state as the best form of government in theory, he acknowledged that the prevailing conditions of his time favored a monarchical government. He firmly asserted the secular nature of the state, subordinating the Church to the authority of the state.
Machiavelli viewed politics from the ruler’s perspective, prioritizing state preservation over constitutional excellence. He examined government mechanisms that strengthen the state and identified errors leading to downfall. As Sabine noted, “The purpose of politics is to preserve and increase political power,” with success being the main criterion for judgment.
Advice on the Amount of Power
Machiavelli famously declared, “It is better for the Prince to be feared than loved”. He advocated that a prince should skillfully employ both hard power and soft power. While he acknowledged the value of soft power in generating goodwill, he argued that goodwill alone was insufficient to ensure compliance, as human beings were inherently selfish and ungrateful. Machiavelli believed that people acted in their own self-interest, so a policy of love and goodwill was not adequate.
The prince, in Machiavelli’s view, should exploit the weaknesses of human nature. Force should not be the first resort but should be applied when absolutely necessary. When the prince decided to use force, it should be employed decisively to completely crush the opponent and leave no room for revenge. Machiavelli recognized the potency of the desire for revenge in humans and believed that it could override rational self-interest, driving individuals to take actions even against their own wellbeing.
Machiavelli on Prince
Machiavelli offers clear guidance on the attributes a prince should possess. He famously advises that a prince must embody both the cunning of a fox and the bravery of a lion. To elucidate these qualities further:
- Cleverness – Like a fox, a prince should be astute and discerning, able to recognize and navigate the various traps and pitfalls that may be set for him.
- Courage – Similar to a lion, a prince should exhibit courage and strength, capable of defending himself against potential threats, often symbolized as wolves.
Machiavelli’s counsel regarding the qualities of a prince stems from his understanding of human nature and his observations of historical events.
Machiavelli On Fortune
Machiavelli expounds on the concept of fortune, which he characterizes as circumstances beyond an individual’s control. He primarily employs the term “fortune” in a negative sense, associating it with bad luck or unfavorable situations. He suggests that even if a prince possesses all the requisite qualities for success, they may still encounter adverse turns of fortune.
In response to the capriciousness of fortune, Machiavelli advises a prince to confront it with courage. He advocated his idea of fortune to a woman who may embrace or disfavor men unpredictably, implying that a prince should face the uncertainties of fortune with resolve and adaptability.
Machiavelli on Forms of Governments
Machiavelli’s classification of government forms is inconsistent and unsystematic. In “The Prince,” he focuses on monarchies or absolute governments, while “Discourses” reflects his admiration for the Roman Republic’s liberty and self-governance. Despite his support for absolute monarchy, Machiavelli emphasizes the necessity of laws for the preservation of the state, which he sees as vital for civic virtue. He advocates for legal remedies against official abuses to prevent lawlessness.
Both works reveal his indifference to the use of immoral means for political ends and suggest that governments largely rely on force and cunning. While he does not develop a general theory of absolutism, he expresses a genuine enthusiasm for popular government, deeming it impractical for Italy. He champions shared government and believes in the virtue of an uncorrupted populace over that of a prince. As Sabine notes, Machiavelli juggles two conflicting views: one favoring despotism for reform and another for republican ideals.
Machiavelli marks the beginning of a new political thought era, earning the title of the Father of Realism. He introduces the Western concept of secularism, advocating for a clear separation of religion and politics. He asserts that understanding politics requires prioritizing history and psychology over ethics. Emphasizing the lawgiver’s role as the architect of the state, he maintains that nationalism should prevail over religion. Ultimately, Machiavelli’s legacy lies in his focus on power dynamics and practical governance, viewing politics as separate from philosophy or religion. In “Discourses,” he critiques all governments, condemning monarchy and feudal nobility as defective.
Machiavelli on “AGGRANDISEMENT”
Machiavelli’s doctrine of aggrandizement, presented in both “The Prince” and “Discourses,” emphasizes the necessity of expanding the state’s territory. He argues that without such expansion, a state is destined to perish. However, this expansion does not imply merging different political entities; rather, it involves subjugating multiple states under a single ruler or commonwealth. Machiavelli views the Roman Empire as an ideal model for this approach, highlighting that the use of military force is essential for both political aggrandizement and state preservation, but it must be applied judiciously alongside cunning.
In a monarchy, the prince must respect the established customs and institutions valued by the people, as these can be dearer than life itself. He believes that in times of corruption, a strong monarchical government is preferable to restore order. Despite his cynicism towards the prince, Machiavelli expresses esteem for liberal governance and prefers popular government when feasible.
Machiavelli contends that a well-trained army is vital for any government, as ultimate authority relies on force. He envisions an enlightened despot who inspires the populace through grand schemes and supports arts and literature. He sees both monarchy and republicanism as ideal, but holds a low opinion of aristocracy and nobility, viewing them as obstacles to stability. His disdain for mercenary soldiers stems from their potential to create disorder and undermine state stability.
Machiavelli’s emphasis on military strength reflects his belief that national patriotism and the unification of Italy are paramount, asserting that duty to one’s country supersedes all other obligations.
Quotes by Machiavelli
⮚ “The lion cannot protect himself from traps, and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves. One must therefore be a fox to recognize traps, and a lion to frighten wolves.”
⮚ “Never attempt to win by force what can be won by deception.”
⮚ “Law, Religion, and Citizen. Army makes for stronger state”
⮚ “Men are driven by two principal impulses, either by love or by fear.”
⮚ “Since love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved”
⮚ “He who wishes to be obeyed must know how to command”
⮚ “Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify the wolves”
⮚ “There is no avoiding war, it can only be postponed to the advantage of your enemy.”
⮚ “Men sooner forget the death of their father than the loss of their patrimony”
Comments on Machiavelli
Negative Comments –
⮚ Machiavelli was regarded as “teacher of evil” by Leo Strauss in his Book – Thoughts on Machiavelli
⮚ A Murderous Machiavelli, a damned Machiavelli – William Shakespeare
⮚ Machiavelli as “Father of Absolutism” – Holland Sabine
Positive Comments –
⮚ Machiavelli a lover of Liberty because of his book “Discourses” – Montesquieu
⮚ A republican, A satirist of a tyranny, a good citizen – Rousseau
⮚ Machiavelli as a Champion of Democracy – Geovanni
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