Postmodernism, which emerged during the latter half of the 20th century, is a philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in direct response to modernism. It initially manifested in the fields of art, literature, and philosophy. Its incorporation into political philosophy is a more recent development. Postmodernism originated from discontentment with various facets of modern life, such as wars among nations, environmental exploitation, and the tendency towards uniformity. Subsequently, it evolved into a distinct philosophical perspective or intellectual movement which says that there is no one truth.
Postmodernism can be characterized as asserting that reality is a product of the mind. Postmodernists generally express skepticism towards explanations that claim universality across different groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and they view truth as subjective. They argue that there are no fixed definitions, boundaries, or absolute truths. In their worldview, they perceive Western society as an outdated lifestyle hidden behind impersonal and anonymous bureaucracies.
Postmodernists reject the idea of establishing objective truth, considering themselves anti-foundationalist. Jean Francois Lyotard captured this notion as “incredulity towards meta-narratives,” which signifies a tendency to question the truths or beliefs established by universal theories of history that present society as a coherent whole.
In simple terms Postmodernism is a different way of seeing the world. It questions what we usually believe is true, real, and important. It doesn’t think there is only one objective reality we can fully know. Instead, it understands that people have diverse and complex experiences. Postmodernism focuses on how language, power, and individual perspectives shape how we understand the world. It often uses irony and self-reflection to criticize or challenge established ideas. In general, postmodernism values and celebrates the variety and intricacy of human culture and experiences.
Characteristics of postmodernism
It includes the belief that truth is relative and subject to individual determination. It challenges the fundamental values of Western society, both religious and capitalist, and strives for change towards a new era of freedom within a global community.
Postmodernists view the external world as flawed, asserting that no one has the authority to define truth or impose their moral ideas on others. They value discourse, debate, and democracy.
Post modernists also blame Western society for the destruction of the environment, advocating for the protection of Mother Earth. Postmodernists support feminist and LGBTQ+ causes. They express disappointment in the unfulfilled promises of science, technology, government, and religions.
Post Modernists attribute nationalism as a cause of wars and propose internationalism and the unification of separate nations. Furthermore, they argue that collective ownership would ensure the fair distribution of goods and services.
Deconstruction
Deconstruction, a theory developed by Jacques Derrida and embraced by postmodernists, is a notable concern within the field. Derrida presented this philosophy in his work “Of Grammatology” (1967). It is a literary theory that challenges the interpretation of text and meaning rooted in Western or modern philosophy.
Deconstruction rejects binary interpretations of the world, such as white/black, masculine/feminine, cause/effect, right/wrong, and good/bad. Instead, it sees contradiction as the true source of understanding and knowledge. Deconstruction challenges definitive interpretations of texts and is utilized by postmodernist thinkers to support anti-foundationalism. Derrida’s approach inspired a postmodern architectural movement known as deconstructivism, characterized by designs that reject structural “centers” and encourage decentralized play among elements.
Key arguments of deconstruction include the belief that there is no objective reality; what we perceive as truth or reality is merely a human narrative, a conceptual construct, and artificial. It also questions the notion that science, technology, and the Age of Enlightenment, considered an era of reason and logic, lead to the improvement of human civilization. Instead, deconstruction asserts that science and technology are destructive and oppressive, as evidenced by the devastation caused by the two world wars, which can be directly attributed to advancements in science and technology. Furthermore, deconstruction challenges the universality of reason and logic, viewing them as conceptual constructs that are valid only within specific intellectual traditions in which they are employed.
Pioneers of Postmodern Theory
I) Michel Foucault
● Foucault aimed to challenge the belief that modern political liberalism and its institutions brought about increased individual freedom.
● He analyzed various branches of knowledge as “archaeologies” and highlighted the significance of discourse and “discursive formations.” He believed that knowledge is intertwined with power, and truth is always a social construct.
● Notable works: “Discipline and Punish” (1975), “The History of Sexuality” (1976), “Madness and Civilization” (1961), “The Archaeology of Knowledge” (1969).
II) Friedrich Nietzsche
● Nietzsche critiqued traditional religious and philosophical thought.
● He emphasized the importance of the will, particularly the “will to power.”
● Nietzsche argued that ethics consist of interpretations rather than objective moral facts, resulting in various moral codes.
● Major works: “Beyond Good and Evil” (1886), “On the Genealogy of Morals” (1887).
III) Jean Francois Lyotard
● Lyotard, a French philosopher, popularized the term “postmodernism” in his 1979 work, “The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge.”
● He defined postmodernism as skepticism towards grand narratives or metanarratives.
● Lyotard believed that truth is contingent upon historical and social contexts rather than being absolute and universal.
IV) Martin Heidegger
● Heidegger criticized previous political philosophies for starting with a conception of human nature instead of recognizing the “human essence” as a realm of disclosure. This led to the dominance of technology over human existence.
● His philosophical system centered on the question of the meaning of “being” or self-conscious existence.
● Notable work: “Being and Time” (1927).
V) Jacques Derrida
● Derrida, a French philosopher, is known for developing deconstruction, a form of semiotic analysis discussed in numerous texts and rooted in phenomenology.
● Deconstruction involves questioning the texts that constitute cultural life, revealing complications and contradictions that authors may not be fully aware of or responsible for.
● Key works: “Writing and Difference” (1967), “Margins of Philosophy” (1972), “Specters of Marx” (1993).
VI) Richard Rorty
● Rorty argued in “Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature” that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods.
● Rejecting the notion of objectivity, Rorty viewed philosophy as a conversation rather than a pursuit of ultimate truth.
● Prominent works: “Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature” (1979), “Consequences of Pragmatism” (1982), “Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity” (1989).
VII) Gilles Deleuze
● Deleuze focused on pluralism and openness to others, criticizing the emphasis on identity and congruence in philosophy.
● He explored the concept of difference and plurality, opposing the philosophy of identity.
● Notable work: “Difference and Repetition.”
