Marxism, a rich intellectual tradition concerning social thought, takes its name from Karl Marx (1818-83), who, along with Friedrich Engels, made significant contributions to this theory. Marxism encompasses both economic and socio-political perspectives, offering an ideological framework for transforming and enhancing society through the implementation of socialism.
Origin to Marxism
Marxism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century as a response to the oppressive conditions produced by the capitalist system. The classical form of liberalism, characterized by laissez-faire economics and a free market, had proven unsuccessful in establishing conditions of human freedom. The initial reaction to these conditions arose from early socialist movements that opposed the society based on free markets. Scholars such as Saint Simon, Charles Fourier, and Robert Owen attempted to introduce socialism by appealing to the moral conscience of capitalists, and they are known as “Utopian Socialists.” Marx regarded them as utopian because they lacked a scientific understanding of socialism and did not possess a concrete plan.
Marx and Engels aimed to supplant utopian socialism with scientific socialism, resulting in the development of Marxism as a new ideology within the socialist framework. In their “Communist Manifesto,” Marx and Engels issued a resounding call to workers worldwide, urging them to unite for the emancipation and liberation of humanity.
Meaning of Marxism
Marxism, rooted in a materialist understanding of history, posits that social groups are motivated by the creation and maintain wealth. It is an ideology with revolutionary aims, seeking to establish a society without social classes or a centralized state.
.jpg)
Classical Marxism
Scholars such as Marx, Engels, Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, Mao Zedong, and Trotsky have contributed to the development of Marxist theory. According to Marxism, the economic mode of production is considered the foundation, while the legal and political structures are seen as the superstructure. The nature of the superstructure is determined by the base at each stage of historical development.
Marxism recognizes that private property creates a division in society between the dominant class and the dependent class. These two classes have opposing interests, leading to class struggle. As a result, the capitalist class will be overthrown by the proletariat class in a revolution. Marxism also envisions a transitional phase called the “Dictatorship of the Proletariat,” where the proletariat rule, eventually leading to a classless and stateless communist society. Classical Marxism encompasses these ideas.
Let’s unveil the various components of Marxism one by one –
Concept of Historical Materialism
Dialectical materialism is a concept rooted in the Hegelian notion of the dialectical method. The term “dialectical” refers to the process by which ideas are formed and clarified through intellectual debate. While Hegel believed that human development is shaped by ideas and consciousness, Marx disagreed and argued that social institutions are influenced by the material conditions of life.
According to Marx, the essence of the universe is matter, and he proposed three laws of material dialectics, also known as dialectical materialism. These laws include the qualitative and quantitative transformation, the unity of opposition, and the negation of negation. The class struggle is seen as a manifestation of this dialectical process.
Marx also developed the concept of historical materialism, which forms the philosophical and scientific basis of Marxism. He asserted that in any given period, economic relations play a significant role in shaping social, political, and intellectual relations. The base and superstructure model is used to understand society, where the base includes the mode of production and the superstructure encompasses legal and political structures, morals, social practices, literature, and more.
The mode of production consists of the forces of production (tools and equipment) and the relations of production (ownership patterns). Changes in the means of production lead to shifts in the nature of contending classes, but according to Marx, this does not bring an end to class conflict.
When the productive resources of society clash with the established economic systems, a new social class that possesses the new means of production will overthrow the ruling class through a revolution. Consequently, an outdated social structure is replaced by a fresh one. Nonetheless, the conflict between classes persists. This pattern has persisted until the emergence of capitalism, which Marx believed would be overthrown by a Socialist Revolution, ultimately resulting in a society without social classes.
Doctrine of Class Struggle
The doctrine of class struggle, as stated in the Communist Manifesto, recognizes that the history of society is shaped by conflicts between different social classes. Marxism analyzes each stage of social development scientifically, emphasizing the importance of classes and their struggles.
At every stage, there are two main classes: the exploiters (owners of production) and the exploited. According to Marxist theory, a specific class owns and controls the means of production, using it to exploit the rest of society. Marx believed in an ongoing and inevitable evolution of class struggle that would ultimately lead to the establishment of communism.
Marxist theory of alienation
Marxist theory of alienation is a fundamental concept in Marx’s critique of capitalism, which refers to the estrangement or separation of individuals from their essential human nature and the fruits of their labor. According to Marx, under capitalism, workers are alienated in several ways.
Firstly, there is alienation from the product of labor. In capitalist production, workers do not own the means of production or the goods they produce. Instead, they sell their labor power to capitalists who appropriate the surplus value generated by the workers’ labor. As a result, workers lack control over the products they create and are disconnected from the fruits of their own labor.
Secondly, there is alienation from the process of labor. In capitalist production, work becomes a mere means to earn a wage rather than a fulfilling and meaningful activity. Workers are subjected to monotonous and repetitive tasks, stripped of autonomy and creativity, and subjected to exploitative conditions in order to maximize profits for the capitalists.
Furthermore, there is alienation from fellow workers. Capitalism fosters a competitive environment where workers are pitted against each other, leading to a lack of solidarity and a sense of isolation. This fragmentation prevents workers from recognizing their shared interests and organizing for collective action.
Lastly, there is alienation from one’s own humanity. Marx argues that labor is an essential part of human nature, allowing individuals to express their creativity and realize their full potential. However, under capitalism, labor becomes a means of survival rather than self-fulfillment, leading to a dehumanizing experience that erodes the essence of human beings.
Marx believed that overcoming alienation required the abolition of capitalism and the establishment of a socialist society where workers have control over the means of production and can participate in meaningful and fulfilling labor. By eliminating the exploitative relations of capitalism, workers can regain their connection to the products of their labor, the process of work, their fellow workers, and their own humanity.
Theory of Surplus Value
According to Marx, surplus value is the value produced by workers that exceeds their wages. In capitalist production, workers are paid a wage that is less than the value they create through their labor. The capitalist appropriates this surplus value as profit. This exploitation occurs because the capitalist class owns and controls the means of production, while workers are forced to sell their labor power to survive. Marx argues that the extraction of surplus value is the driving force behind capitalist accumulation and the source of class conflict. He contends that the abolition of the capitalist system would eliminate this exploitation and create a more equitable society.
Neo Marxism
Neo-Marxism, also known as Modern Marxism, aims to revise and reinterpret classical Marxist ideas while staying true to certain aspects and methodologies of Marx. It draws influence from Karl Marx, Gramsci, Hegel, and Sigmund Freud.
Two central themes can be identified in Neo-Marxist thought: a rejection of the mechanistic and deterministic views of orthodox Marxism and an exploration of the failure of Marx’s predictions regarding ideology and state power. Neo-Marxists analyze new forms of exploitation, arguing that capitalism has adopted a more humane facade, making it harder to recognize exploitation. The Frankfurt School/Critical School emphasizes the emancipation of the masses rather than revolution. They criticize science/positivism, asserting that it promotes only instrumental reality. Neo-Marxists argue that even in post-capitalist societies, freedom is limited, as the nature of capitalism and methods of exploitation have changed. They contend that the welfare state has satisfied the basic needs of the working class, reducing their revolutionary potential as they find contentment in consumerism.
Capitalism, according to Neo-Marxists, has fostered a consumerist culture, transforming classes into masses. They analyze the role of science and information and communication technology (ICT) in creating a mass culture for mass society. They also emphasize the importance of analyzing culture within the framework of capitalism, asserting that culture is no longer just a superstructural element but a part of the basic structure, produced, sold, and consumed. Theodor Adorno, for example, examines the impact of capitalism on music, arguing that it has led to the degradation of original music, reducing it to mindless and insensitive entertainment.
Conclusion
Though the failure of Marxism and Communism is a serious handicap for the Marxists, it is the survival of capitalism in its robust form which makes Marxism more pronouncing. Marxism has not remained static or a finished system, it continually modified according to the changing historical circumstances.
