Aristotle, Father of Political Science is one of the most influential thinker of Western Political Thought provided extensive work on Western philosophy, Political science, and ethics, shaping the foundations of these fields and influencing centuries of thought. The question is How much we know about him?
Introduction:
Aristotle, recognized as the Father of Political Science, holds a unique place in philosophy as both Plato’s most notable student and a significant critic. His contributions deeply shaped political science and influenced later thinkers. With roots in biology, Aristotle introduced a scientific and practical approach to politics, moving away from philosophical speculation. He played a major role in comparative politics, earning the title Father of Comparative Politics. To fully understand Aristotle’s philosophical development, it’s essential to look at his early life and influences.
Table of Contents
Early Life of Aristotle
Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagira, a small town in northern Greece, and was not an Athenian by birth, unlike many of his contemporaries. His father, Nicomachus, served as a physician to King Amyntas of Macedon, which significantly shaped Aristotle’s early interest in biology and the natural sciences. After the early death of his parents, Aristotle moved to Athens at the age of 17 and joined Plato’s Academy, where he studied for nearly two decades (367-347 BC).
After Plato’s death in 347 BC, Aristotle entered what is often referred to as his “journeyman period” (347-335 BC). He spent significant time in Assos, where he became closely associated with Hermias, a former slave who had risen to power as a tyrant. During this period, Aristotle married Hermias’s niece and adopted daughter, Pythias. Following her death, he formed a relationship with Herpyllis, a woman from his hometown, with whom he had a son named Nicomachus, after Aristotle’s father.
Aristotle’s relationship with Hermias brought him closer to the Macedonian royal family, where he eventually became the tutor of Alexander the Great. This connection significantly influenced Aristotle’s understanding of governance, economics, and international relations. His friendship with Alexander also provided access to valuable resources for scientific research, including reports from hunters and fishermen, which informed his biological studies.
In 335 BC, after his time with Alexander, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school, the Lyceum, where he taught for about 12 years. During this period, Aristotle expanded his studies to cover a wide range of subjects, including politics, ethics, and biology. Maxey noted that for nearly a thousand years, “Aristotle’s work on logic, mechanics, physics, physiology, astronomy, economics, and politics was considered almost the last word on these subjects.” His legacy as a scholar and philosopher was vast, with many contemporaries and successors looking to him as a master of knowledge. Maxey remarked, “Whatever subject Aristotle treated, he treated it well, and whatever work he wrote, he made it a masterpiece.”
Aristotle’s rejection of some of Plato’s ideas parallels J.S. Mill’s divergence from Bentham, leading to two key streams in Western Political Theory: Plato’s political idealism and Aristotle’s political realism. Coleridge (Scholar) noted that people are either naturally Platonists or Aristotelians.
The major difference between them was methodological. Plato, the Father of Political Philosophy, used deductive reasoning to envision an ideal state, while Aristotle, as the Father of Political Science, employed inductive methods to focus on achieving the best possible state. Maxey pointed out that those who seek radical change are followers of Plato, while those favoring incremental improvement through science are Aristotle’s disciples.
Influence of Plato on Aristotle’s Life
Aristotle’s intellectual journey began under the mentorship of Plato, whom he studied under for nearly 20 years at the Academy. Although Aristotle would later become a critic of Plato’s ideas, he remained deeply influenced by his teacher throughout his life. According to Foster, Aristotle is regarded as “the greatest of all Platonists” because of the profound impact Plato had on his early thinking.
Both Plato and Aristotle shared the belief that humans are inherently social beings and that they must live within a society. They also agreed that democracy was not the best form of government and that the state existed to foster the moral development of individuals. Both philosophers supported a social system where some citizens would pursue intellectual activities while others performed manual labor.
Despite these shared beliefs, Aristotle began to diverge from Plato’s ideas, developing his own philosophy. While Plato’s approach was deductive—starting from general principles and working towards specific applications—Aristotle favored an inductive method, building general principles from specific observations. Aristotle also rejected Plato’s concept of communal ownership of wives and property, arguing that the family unit was essential to social harmony.
Maxey noted the sharp contrast between the two: “Where Plato let his imagination take flight, Aristotle was factual and dull; where Plato was eloquent, Aristotle was terse.” Hacker added to this comparison, stating that Plato was a political idealist, while Aristotle was a political realist. While Plato envisioned an ideal state, Aristotle focused on the best possible state within existing conditions.
Aristotle also criticized Plato’s notion of justice. Plato believed that justice was tied to the performance of one’s duties, emphasizing moral obligations, while Aristotle viewed justice as a legal and practical concept based on individual rights. Aristotle found Plato’s justice incomplete because it prioritized duties over rights. Aristotle also disagreed with Plato’s vision of a state governed by a ruling class, arguing that it would exclude wise and capable individuals from lower social classes. As David Young pointed out, Aristotle viewed this as an “ill-conceived political structure” that stifled ambition and potential.
In matters of law, Aristotle also parted ways with Plato. While Plato believed that laws were unnecessary in a state governed by virtuous rulers, Aristotle valued the rule of law, stating that it was preferable to the rule of men, regardless of their wisdom. Sabine noted that even Plato came to recognize the importance of laws, revising his stance in his later work, The Laws.
Another point of contention was Plato’s vision of communal property and the family. Aristotle argued that such arrangements would undermine familial love and discipline, leading to societal disunity. He believed that Plato’s attempt to create a family of the state, with communal ownership of wives and property, would lead to the state ceasing to function effectively. As Sabine remarked, “A family is one thing and a state is something different.”
While Aristotle criticized Plato’s ideas, he never entirely abandoned his teacher’s influence. As Foster noted, Aristotle’s work is permeated with Platonism. Aristotle often started where Plato ended, refining his teacher’s concepts and grounding them in practical, observable realities. Ross commented that “there is no page of Aristotle’s philosophical work that does not bear the impress of Platonism.” Both Plato and Aristotle believed in the importance of the state for achieving human perfection, though their methods and conclusions diverged.
In the end, Aristotle’s criticism of Plato was not personal but philosophical. As Will Durant famously remarked, Aristotle believed that “dear is Plato, but dearer still is truth.” Eberstein also highlighted the dynamic between the two, stating that “Plato found the corrective to his thinking in his own student.”
Politics and Ethics
Aristotle’s political philosophy is closely tied to his ethical views. He believed every phenomenon consists of form and matter, with form guiding matter toward ethical ends. Unlike Plato, Aristotle valued the visible world, seeing it as composed of essential elements. He also believed the human soul had both logical and illogical parts, and through ethical virtues, the logical part could be developed.
For Aristotle, politics and ethics are inseparable. Politics exists to achieve moral ends, promoting happiness and the good life. The state, evolving from the family, is a moral organization that fosters ethical living. In Nicomachean Ethics, he argues that the goal of politics is a good and honorable life, making politics an extension of ethics.
Key points:
- The state is a moral and ethical entity that helps individuals lead a good life.
- Moral qualities in individuals and citizens, such as cooperation and self-control, develop through practice.
- Politics enables the pursuit of moral virtues through action.
- Human rationality allows individuals to seek what is good for themselves and the community.
- Justice, for Aristotle, is an ethical virtue, with politics ensuring distributive justice based on equality. Ethics underpins his entire political theory.
Important Works of Aristotle
⮚ Nicomachean Ethics (350 BC) – Here Aristotle states that human beings can be happy only if they fulfill their basic function i.e. fulfill the capacities of their human nature in an excellent way. He gave a term for Happiness – Eudaimonia. He examines the various virtues necessary for living well in a polis. In this Book he gave his idea of “Golden Mean”.
⮚ Metaphysics (350 BC) – In this, Aristotle rejected Plato’s theory of forms. Metaphysics is characterized by the study of “being qua being” – being in general rather than specifically of this or that sort.
⮚ Politics (350 BC) – Politics is the most influential and profound work of Aristotle. He describes the role that politics and political community must play in bringing about a virtuous life of the citizens. He defines ‘polis’ or city as a ‘koinonia’ or a political association. Maxey called Aristotle “1st Political Scientist” because of his work Politics.
⮚ Physics
⮚ Rhetorics
⮚ On the Soul (350 BC) – Three types of Soul –
- Nutritive Soul
- Sensible Soul
- Rational Soul
⮚ Eudemian Ethics
⮚ De Anima
Perspective of Aristotle as a Thinker
Aristotle’s philosophy is characterized by its reliance on common sense rather than specialized knowledge for good governance. He believes that rulers should possess worldly wisdom rather than being immersed in the realm of abstract ideas. As a conservative thinker, Aristotle advocates for the preservation and rectification of existing institutions over their complete elimination.
He adopts a functionalist approach, emphasizing the utility of institutions, viewing them from a utilitarian standpoint. Aristotle is a proponent of the Golden mean, advocating for moderation and balance over extreme positions. His belief in teleology, the idea that there is a predetermined purpose for every individual in nature, underpins his philosophy, suggesting that nature guides our destinies as we move toward our preordained roles. In essence, Aristotle’s philosophy is a fusion of practicality, moderation, and a deep understanding of human nature, making him a pivotal figure in the history of political thought.
Major Themes of Aristotle’s Political Thought
Let’s discuss the major themes of Aristotle’s political philosophy, including his theory of the state, the importance of the rule of law, and his insights on different types of constitutions.
Theory of the State By Aristotle
Aristotle firmly believed in the significance of the state in human life. Drawing from the Socratic tradition, much like his teacher Plato, he underscored the critical role of the state in our existence. According to Aristotle, humans are inherently political beings. Nature has not designed humans to be self-sufficient; we rely on communities to fulfill our needs. Aristotle argued that living without a state would require superhuman qualities or divine attributes. Therefore, he regarded it as the destiny of humanity to be part of a political community.
In Aristotle’s view, the state is not just a collection of individuals; it is the highest form of association. While man may precede the state chronologically, the state takes precedence logically. It is not a single entity but a “association of association,” embodying unity in diversity. Within the state, various interests coexist, and achieving equilibrium among them is crucial for its stability. For Aristotle, the State is prior to Individual and a natural institution which is most vital. Hence, “Individual without the state is either a beast or God”.
Rule of Law by Aristotle
Aristotle favored the rule of law over the rule of a single individual. He believed that the “passionless authority of law” imparts a moral quality and dignity to both rulers and subjects. This perspective on the rule of law laid the foundation for constitutional rule. Aristotle outlined key elements of constitutional rule:
- Rule in the common interest of the people, not the rulers’ self-interest.
- Governance guided by regulations, not arbitrary orders.
- Willing subjects who are ruled by consent, not force.
Theory of Constitution by Aristotle
Aristotle used the terms constitution, state, and government interchangeably. For him, a constitution was not merely a form of government or a set of norms; it was a way of life that determined the moral character of the state. Aristotle categorized constitutions into four types based on his study of 158 different constitutions:
- One: Monarchy (Best form of government, but not always practical)
- Few: Aristocracy (Rule by the rich) – Can pervert into Oligarchy (self-interest)
- Many: Polity (Rule by the middle class) – A golden mean between Oligarchy and Democracy
- Many: Democracy (Rule by the ignorant poor) – Can pervert into Mobocracy – Worst Form of Government according to Aristotle.
Cycle of Governments: Monarchy → Tyranny → Aristocracy → Oligarchy → Polity → Democracy → Monarchy, illustrating the cyclical nature of political systems.
Aristotle believed that Polity, a government by the middle class with moderate property and wisdom, was the most suitable and practicable form of government. It represented the golden mean between Oligarchy and Democracy. Polity incorporated three essential elements:
- A Deliberative Body (Legislature)
- The Official or Magistrate (Executive)
- The Judicial System (Judiciary)
Why Polity is Most Suitable
Aristotle argued that Polity, as a constitutional government, offered a balanced blend of democracy and oligarchy. It was neither a rule by the majority nor the minority but rather a rule by the middle class, which he believed was the most stable segment of society. This form of government considered factors such as freedom, wealth, culture, noble birth, and numerical superiority.
Theory of Citizenship by Aristotle
Aristotle equated citizenship with duty. According to him, being a citizen means actively participating in the affairs of the state. However, Aristotle’s view of citizenship had some limitations. He believed that only adult males from the propertied class could be considered citizens. Others, such as the Working class,women, the elderly, children, and slaves, were excluded due to various reasons like being too busy, household responsibilities, physical limitations, or lack of reason.
Aristotle’s Theory of Slavery
Aristotle perceived slavery as both natural and useful, categorizing slaves into two types: those enslaved by law (such as prisoners of war) and those enslaved by nature. He argued that individuals who are slaves by nature are incapable of making decisions and are therefore better off under the rule of a master. Aristotle believed that mentally strong individuals should be rulers, while physically strong ones should be producers or slaves. He posited that a benevolent master could help slaves develop virtues, enabling them to live better lives, while also providing the master with more time to engage in civic matters.
Aristotle’s Views on Property and Family
Aristotle criticized Plato’s communism of property, arguing that property is essential for psychological satisfaction and fulfilling the human instinct for ownership. He asserted that Plato failed to balance the claims of production and distribution, leading to conflicts. Aristotle identified four types of property ownership:
- Individual ownership and individual use (dangerous).
- Common ownership and individual use (could lead to capitalism).
- Common ownership and common use (impractical).
- Individual ownership and common use (generally acceptable).
He concluded that property should be primarily private but commonly used. Aristotle stated that wealth is necessary for survival and should be acquired through honest means, criticizing excessive accumulation.
In contrast to Plato, Aristotle defended the private family system as the foundational unit of society. He argued that the family not only creates society but is essential for its continuity. Criticizing Plato’s communism of families, Aristotle claimed that common interests would be neglected. He viewed the family as the primary school of social virtue, where individuals learn cooperation, love, tolerance, and sacrifice.
Aristotle defined the family as comprising husband, wife, children, slaves, and property, establishing three types of relationships: master-slave, marital (husband-wife), and parental (father-child). He believed that men are superior to women and slaves, holding a patriarchal view that confined women to domestic roles. Aristotle justified slavery as natural and necessary, claiming some are destined to rule while others are meant to be ruled. He argued that it is expedient for masters to have slaves to enjoy a free life and for slaves to attain virtues in the company of freemen. Although he rejected inhumane treatment of slaves, he viewed them as sub-human and incomplete. Aristotle anticipated a future without slavery, foreseeing technological advancements that would eliminate the need for it, such as machines replacing human labor.
Theory of Justice By Aristotle
Aristotle examined justice on three levels: distributive justice, rectificatory justice, and corrective justice. His theory, known as the Theory of Proportionate Justice, emphasizes fair distribution of resources and addresses harm among individuals. He argued that rewards should reflect a person’s contributions to society, stating, “Justice is to do the rightness and the wrongness of our actions.” Like Plato, he viewed justice as essential to the state, asserting that no polity can thrive without a proper scheme of justice. Justice provides purpose to the state and meaning for individuals, as reflected in his statement: “When perfected, man is the best of animals, but when separated from law and justice, he is the worst of all.”
Aristotle defined justice as complete virtue and the embodiment of goodness, distinguishing it from mere virtue by emphasizing its active practice. He stated, “The good in the sphere of politics is justice, and justice contains what tends to promote the common interest.” For him, justice is vital to the state’s integrity and ethical standards, ensuring its health and purity. Ross noted that Aristotle recognized two interpretations of justice: lawful and fair.
He categorized justice into general and particular forms, with general justice representing complete virtue. General justice embodies goodness towards oneself and others, while particular justice involves observing laws without demanding more than one deserves. Particular justice is divided into distributive and corrective types. Distributive justice allocates honors based on merit, treating equals equally and unequals unequally. Corrective justice seeks to restore balance by compensating the disadvantaged, regardless of the parties’ positions.
Comparing Plato and Aristotle’s notions of justice reveals key differences:
- Plato saw justice as fulfilling one’s duties; Aristotle viewed it as rewards proportional to contributions.
- Plato’s justice is duty-oriented, while Aristotle’s is rights-oriented.
- Plato’s theory is moral and philosophical; Aristotle’s is legal.
- Plato linked distributive justice to individual excellence; Aristotle associated it with deserving rights.
- Plato’s justice is spiritual; Aristotle’s is practical, focusing on virtue in action.
- Plato’s justice relates to the inner self; Aristotle’s is concerned with external actions.
Aristotle’s theory of justice is grounded in practical life, guided by ethical values. However, he struggled to align the ethical and legal aspects of justice. His concept of distributive justice, focused on merit, often conflicts with political realities, as balancing a growing population with limited opportunities proves challenging.
Concept Of Knowledge by Aristotle
Aristotle also believed the all Knowledge can be classified into three classes –
- Theoretical Knowledge
- Practical Knowledge
- Productive Knowledge
With this Aristotle also defined 4 causes of an explanation of being anything such as:
Formal Cause – The formal cause relates to the inherent design, structure, or pattern that defines an object or phenomenon. It answers the question: “What is its essential nature or form?” In the case of a living organism, like a tree, the formal cause encompasses the genetic code and characteristics that make it a tree. The formal cause focuses on the blueprint or idea behind the existence of something.
Material Cause – This cause refers to the material substance or components that make up an object or entity. It answers the question: “What is it made of?” For example, the material cause of a wooden table is the wood itself. Understanding the material cause helps us comprehend the physical composition of an object.
Efficient Cause – The efficient cause is the force or agent responsible for bringing about an event or causing something to happen. It answers the question: “What initiated or caused it?” For instance, the efficient cause of a book could be the author who wrote it, the publisher who printed it, or the person who purchased it. It relates to the actions or processes that lead to the existence or occurrence of an object or event.
Final Cause (Telos): The final cause deals with the purpose, goal, or end for which something exists or occurs. It answers the question: “Why does it exist or happen?” The final cause provides insight into the reason or intended outcome of an action or the existence of an object. For example, the final cause of a plant is to grow, reproduce, and contribute to its ecosystem. It is concerned with the ultimate aim or function of an entity within the broader context.
Read More about Plato – Philosophy of Plato
Aristotle’s Theory of Revolution
In Politics, Aristotle addresses the crucial issue of political instability, exploring the causes and remedies for revolutions. He analyzes various factors affecting state life, akin to a physician diagnosing ailments and suggesting treatments. His empirical approach leads to a comprehensive understanding of the political evils prevalent in Greek city-states, offering practical solutions to avert these dangers. Revolution, for Aristotle, signifies any change in governance, whether significant (like a shift from monarchy to aristocracy) or minor (a decline in democracy). Thus, he defines revolution as:
- A change in rulers.
- A political transformation.
- A power revolution.
- Political instability.
- A change accompanied by violence or bloodshed.
Aristotle advocated for maintaining the status quo, fearing that political changes could lead to catastrophic outcomes. He identified general causes of revolutions, including:
- The universal desire for privilege that leads to resentment against perceived inequalities.
- The arrogance or greed of rulers prompting rebellion.
- Concentration of power that raises fears of tyranny.
- Misdeeds by individuals seeking to distract from their actions.
- Disproportionate growth in certain social or economic groups.
- Rivalries and feuds among different societal factions.
- Struggles for power among political parties.
He also pointed out specific causes related to different governance types:
- In democracies, demagogues targeting the wealthy can incite unrest.
- Oligarchies can face internal strife if certain members gain undue influence.
- In aristocracies, widening wealth disparities can trigger revolts.
Preventive Measures Against Revolution
To prevent revolutions, Aristotle proposed several strategies:
- Upholding the rule of law to maintain obedience among citizens.
- Avoiding discrimination against any societal class and recognizing capable leaders.
- Fostering patriotism by reminding citizens of external threats.
- Mitigating discontent from inequality through regulated office tenures and fair distribution of honors.
- Educating the youth in accordance with the constitution to cultivate responsible citizens.
While Aristotle’s analysis provides valuable insights, it has notable limitations. He defined revolution narrowly as merely political change, overlooking its broader social implications. His perspective tended to view revolutions solely as destructive forces, neglecting their potential as catalysts for positive transformation. Despite this, Aristotle’s Theory of Revolution remains a significant discourse on how societies can strive for stability amid inevitable change.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Aristotle’s groundbreaking contributions to the field of political science have left an indelible mark. Through a meticulous examination of 158 constitutions within the Greek city-states, he pioneered the comparative method in the study of political science. As the inaugural realist thinker and a staunch individualist, Aristotle’s magnum opus, “Politics,” has not only shaped the Western tradition but also laid the very foundation upon which it rests. His work remains an enduring cornerstone, influencing and guiding scholars and thinkers throughout the ages, and continues to be a source of inspiration for the study of politics in the modern world.
Important Quotes By Aristotle
⮚ “It is unjust to treat equals unequally; It is equally unjust to treat unequal equally”.
⮚ “Man is by nature a political animal”.
⮚ “Virtue of Justice consists in moderation, as regulated by Wisdom”
⮚ “Authority of statesman is different from the authority of master.”
⮚ “State comes into existence for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life.”
⮚ “State is the highest of all associations.”
⮚ “One who can live without state is either a beast or god but he can’t be a man.”
⮚ “Polity is the best practicable form of government.”
⮚ “Law is a reason without passion.”
⮚ “I will not allow the Athenian to commit another sin”
Important Commentaries on Aristotle
⮚ “Aristotle’s conception of slavery is more a justification of a necessity than a deduction from disinterested observation of facts.”. – Barker
⮚ Aristotle’s ideal state is Plato’s second best state – Sabine
⮚ “Aristotle’s best possible state is simply the one which is neither too rich nor too poor; secure from attack and devoid of great wealth or wide expansion of trade or territory, homogeneous, virtuous, defensible, unambitious community, self sufficient but not aggressive, great but not large, a tightly independent city devoted to the achievement of the Highest possible measure of culture and virtue, of wellbeing and true happiness attainable by each and by all”. – C. H. McIlwain
⮚ “Politics is not a systematic study of political philosophy, but rather is 3 treatise on the art of government.” – Gettel
⮚ “Aristotle is the greatest of all Platonists. – Foster
⮚ “Plato found the corrective to his thinking in his own student.” – William Ebenstiein
⮚ “The ideas, expressed by Plato as suggestions, illusions or illustrations are taken up by Aristotle.” – Dunning
⮚ “As Brutus loves not Caesar less, but Rome more, so Aristotle says–dear is Plato, but dearer still is truth.” – Will Durant
⮚ “Aristotle begins by recognising two senses of the word. By ‘Just’, we may mean what is lawful or what is fair and equal.” – W.D. Ross
⮚ “Aristotle’s methodology is scientific; his work is systematic, his writings are analytical. Aristotle’s each essay begins with the words: ‘Observation show” – Barker
[…] Aristotle’s teleology, the theory that interprets things in terms of their ends or purpose, deeply influenced Hegel’s philosophical outlook. For instance, just as a newspaper’s purpose is to provide news, Hegel saw the unfolding of history guided by its own teleological ends. […]
[…] limited to the examination of institutions, a practice rooted in the teachings of Aristotle. Aristotle, in fact, dispatched his students around the world to scrutinize different political systems and […]