Climate Change: A Comprehensive Overview

Climate change is one of the most critical environmental challenges facing the world today. It refers to long-term and significant changes in global weather patterns, primarily caused by human activities and natural variability. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as alterations in the Earth’s climate due to human-induced activities, such as excessive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which disrupt natural atmospheric composition.

The phenomenon of climate change is often referred to as a “global problem” because its effects are not confined to specific regions or nations. Rising temperatures, melting glaciers, and extreme weather patterns impact the entire planet, making it a shared concern for humanity. This interconnectedness has given rise to the term Global Commons, which refers to shared resources including the atmosphere, the high seas, Antarctica, and outer space. Susan J. Buck’s The Global Commons: An Introduction (1998) emphasized the collective responsibility to preserve these resources for global well-being.

A related concept, The Tragedy of the Commons, was introduced by Garrett Hardin in 1968. It describes how shared resources are overused and depleted when individuals prioritize personal gain over collective interests. Similarly, Common Heritage of Mankind, a principle proposed by Arvid Pardo in 1967, advocates for equitable and sustainable management of natural resources, emphasizing that they belong not only to the present generation but also to future ones.

Climate change manifests through clear indicators such as ozone layer depletion, rising sea levels, melting glaciers, and acid rain. These phenomena disrupt ecosystems, endanger biodiversity, and threaten human livelihoods. A key driver of climate change is global warming, the gradual increase in the Earth’s surface and atmospheric temperatures. This is caused by GHGs like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which trap heat in the atmosphere and prevent it from escaping back into space.

Efforts to combat climate change have led to international agreements like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which came into force in 1994, and the Montreal Protocol (1987), aimed at phasing out ozone-depleting substances. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) and subsequent summits like the Copenhagen Summit (2009) have also sought to address global emissions and climate impacts.

Addressing climate change requires global cooperation, sustainable practices, and adherence to these international frameworks. It is a pressing challenge that demands immediate attention to safeguard the future of the planet and its inhabitants.

How Do Human Activities Contribute to Climate Change?

Human activities significantly contribute to climate change by releasing four main greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and halocarbons. These gases accumulate in the atmosphere and have drastically increased during the industrial era, now called the Anthropocene, a term coined by Eugene F. Stoermer and popularized by Paul Crutzen. This era marks the profound influence of human actions on Earth’s systems, affecting its climate and ecosystems.

Key Greenhouse Gas Contributions:

1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
   1. Released through fossil fuel use in transportation, heating/cooling, cement manufacturing, and deforestation, which also reduces carbon uptake by plants.
   1. CO2 is naturally emitted during processes like plant decay but is amplified by human activities.
2. Methane (CH4):
   1. Emitted from agriculture (e.g., livestock), natural gas distribution, and landfills.
   1. Naturally released in wetlands but significantly increased by human actions.
3. Nitrous Oxide (N2O):
   1. Results from fertilizer use, fossil fuel combustion, and industrial activities.
   1. Also produced naturally in soils and oceans.
4. Halocarbons:
   1. Includes chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigeration and industry, now regulated due to their role in stratospheric ozone depletion.

Other Climate Influencers:

• Ozone:
  • Tropospheric ozone has increased due to emissions like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, while stratospheric ozone has been depleted by halocarbons, causing phenomena like the ozone hole over Antarctica.
• Water Vapour:
  • Although not directly influenced by human actions, a warmer climate increases water vapor, which in turn amplifies the greenhouse effect. Methane also indirectly contributes to water vapor through its chemical breakdown in the stratosphere.
• Aerosols:
  • These tiny particles, from sources like fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning, and industrial dust, affect climate by scattering sunlight and influencing cloud formation. Aerosols include both natural sources (e.g., sea salt, volcanic dust) and human-induced pollutants.

Global Change and Climate Change

Global change refers to transformations on a worldwide scale, such as increased atmospheric carbon dioxide or global biodiversity loss. It includes human-driven impacts like urbanization, industrialization, and resource exploitation. Historically, global change was driven by natural factors like solar output, tectonic activity, volcanic eruptions, and Earth’s orbital variations. However, the modern era, marked by significant human influence, is referred to as the Anthropocene, a term popularized by chemist Paul Crutzen. This era is characterized by widespread environmental changes resulting from human activities over just 250 years, including pollution, deforestation, and increased demand for energy and goods.

Global change encompasses various elements, such as population growth, urbanization, land use, ocean circulation, atmospheric changes, and sea-level rise. According to the Amsterdam Declaration (2001), human activities are altering essential planetary systems, jeopardizing resources like food, water, and clean air. The declaration emphasized that these changes threaten human well-being and require urgent global action.

Climate Change: A Central Concern

Climate change is a key aspect of global change, driven by rising greenhouse gas emissions. Since 1850, global temperatures have risen by 1.2°C due to human activities, with projections of an additional 2–3°C increase within the next 50 years if emissions persist. Eleven of the twelve hottest years occurred between 1995 and 2006, underscoring the rapidity of warming.

Key consequences include:

1. Rising Sea Levels: Ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica are melting, adding water to oceans. Coastal megacities like Mumbai and Boston, as well as island nations, are at risk of submersion.
2. Extreme Weather: More intense storms, prolonged droughts, and erratic rainfall patterns are jeopardizing agriculture and water supplies, particularly in developing regions.
3. Biodiversity Loss: Rapid warming outpaces many species’ ability to adapt. With 3°C warming, 20–30% of land species face extinction. Coral reefs are suffering from bleaching and acidification, while polar ecosystems are being decimated.
4. Human Health Impacts: Diseases like malaria and dengue are spreading to new areas due to warming. Developing countries, with limited healthcare resources, are particularly vulnerable to these impacts.

Climate Change and Human Development

Climate change threatens global efforts to combat poverty and improve living standards. According to the Human Development Report (2007/08), climate change endangers progress in reducing poverty, enhancing education, and improving health outcomes.

Key risks include:

• Agricultural Impact: Reduced rainfall and rising temperatures could diminish crop yields, increasing malnutrition and hunger, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America.
• Water Scarcity: Changes in glacier melt and rainfall patterns could leave 1.8 billion people in water-scarce environments by 2080, impacting regions like South Asia, Central Asia, and the Andes.
• Displacement and Disasters: Sea-level rise and intense tropical storms could displace millions, affecting countries like Bangladesh, Egypt, and Vietnam, as well as small island states.
• Ecosystem Disruption: Rapid climate shifts threaten ecosystems, with oceans becoming more acidic and coral reefs and ice-based habitats collapsing.
• Health Crises: Expanded ranges for diseases like malaria and dengue could expose hundreds of millions more people, compounding existing healthcare challenges.

These impacts, acting together, threaten the sustainability of human and ecological systems. Combating climate change is not only an environmental necessity but also a fundamental challenge to sustaining human development and global equity.

Climate Change Debates: Kyoto Protocol and Copenhagen Summit

The global response to climate change has been shaped by several pivotal international efforts, beginning with the Rio Earth Summit (1992) and continuing through agreements like the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Copenhagen Summit (2009). These milestones reflect a concerted global effort to tackle climate change, though both the Kyoto Protocol and the Copenhagen Summit faced significant challenges and criticisms regarding their effectiveness.

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

The Kyoto Protocol was the first legally binding international treaty aimed at addressing climate change. It emerged as a direct result of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was signed during the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. The UNFCCC laid the groundwork by committing nations to stabilize greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Building on this, the Kyoto Protocol, adopted on December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, established concrete targets for reducing GHG emissions, setting the stage for formal international commitments to combat global warming.

The protocol came into force on February 16, 2005, after it had been ratified by a sufficient number of countries. As of November 2009, a total of 187 states had ratified the treaty, demonstrating wide global support. However, a significant gap in participation came from the United States, a key global emitter of GHGs, which signed the UNFCCC but ultimately decided not to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. At the time, the U.S. was responsible for 36.1% of global GHG emissions in 1990, making its absence from the protocol particularly consequential for the treaty’s potential impact. This absence, coupled with the refusal of other major developing countries to accept binding emissions cuts, raised concerns about the treaty’s effectiveness in addressing global climate change.

Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries, referred to as Annex I countries, committed to reducing their GHG emissions by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels during the commitment period of 2008–2012. These nations were expected to implement measures to reduce their emissions of key GHGs, including carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆), as well as two groups of industrial gases: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). However, the treaty’s emission limits did not include international aviation and shipping, sectors that are significant sources of emissions, though industrial gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which contribute to both climate change and ozone depletion, were separately addressed under the 1987 Montreal Protocol. Despite these efforts, critics questioned whether the targets would be sufficient to halt the rising global temperatures and prevent catastrophic climate impacts.

The central question surrounding the Kyoto Protocol remained: Would it make a real difference in curbing global warming? Early assessments suggested that even if the signatories met their emission reduction targets, the reductions would only make a modest impact on the world’s growing output of GHGs. Furthermore, the century-long lifespan of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere meant that the planet was already committed to significant warming, even if all industrial emissions ceased immediately. Climate models indicated that, even if every fuel-burning machine on Earth were turned off tomorrow, the planet would still warm by at least another 0.5°C, as oceans slowly released the heat they had absorbed over the past several decades. This realization highlighted the need for more drastic technological and lifestyle changes to reverse the upward trajectory of GHG emissions and reduce the impacts of climate change.

Copenhagen Summit (2009)

The Copenhagen Summit, formally known as the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009, was held in Copenhagen, Denmark, from December 7–18, 2009. It was expected to build on the previous frameworks, such as the Bali Road Map, and set a new direction for international climate change mitigation efforts beyond 2012. The aim was to secure a legally binding agreement that would address the growing climate crisis and establish firm emission reduction targets for all nations. However, the summit ended in disappointment for many environmental advocates and vulnerable nations, primarily due to the lack of a legally binding agreement.

During the summit, the Copenhagen Accord was drafted by key nations—the United States, China, India, Brazil, and South Africa—on December 18, 2009. The document was seen as a “meaningful agreement” by the United States government but was not adopted by the full plenary of all participating countries. It was only “taken note of” by the official meeting, meaning it was not legally binding. The accord acknowledged that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time and called for global efforts to limit the rise in global temperatures to below 2°C compared to pre-industrial levels. However, it did not set firm emissions reduction targets, nor did it provide a clear legal framework for global emissions reductions, making the accord fall short of the expectations set by many environmental groups and the world’s most vulnerable countries.

One of the most contentious issues was the lack of legally binding commitments for reducing CO₂ emissions, which many critics argued would be necessary to achieve the goal of keeping the global temperature increase below 2°C. Although the Copenhagen Accord recognized the importance of this target, it did not include specific commitments or mechanisms to enforce emissions reductions. Additionally, countries most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change—such as small island states—felt that the accord did not meet their needs or expectations. Instead, the document outlined a financial commitment of US$30 billion for developing countries over the next three years, with pledges to increase this to US$100 billion per year by 2020, to help these nations adapt to climate change. This proposal was a response to the needs of poorer nations that had been advocating for financial support to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Despite widespread hopes that the Copenhagen Summit would result in a legally binding treaty, the event was marked by negotiating deadlock and disagreements. The Copenhagen Accord, as a result, was not enforceable and did not include binding commitments on key issues such as emissions reductions and the timeline for achieving specific climate goals. Early in 2010, several countries, including India and various small island nations, expressed dissatisfaction with the accord, arguing that it failed to adequately address the scale of the climate crisis. Indian journalist Praful Bidwai criticized both developed and some developing countries for their role in shaping the outcome, labeling the Copenhagen Accord as an “illegitimate” and “ill-conceived” deal. He argued that the accord was a collusion between a handful of countries that would allow the world’s biggest emitters to continue their high-consumption lifestyles at the expense of poorer nations.

In the aftermath, the Copenhagen Accord called for countries to submit their national emissions reduction targets by the end of January 2010, and laid the groundwork for further discussions at the 2010 UN Climate Change Conference in Mexico. By early February 2010, 67 countries had registered their targets, but the lack of progress on a legally binding treaty and the challenges of reaching a comprehensive international agreement left many observers questioning the future role of the UNFCCC in driving meaningful global climate action.

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched on 30th June 2008 to address the challenges posed by climate change while promoting sustainable growth. The NAPCC advocates a two-pronged strategy: the first is to develop adaptation measures to deal with the impacts of climate change, and the second is to enhance ecological sustainability in the country’s development trajectory. The NAPCC aims to help India maintain its rapid economic growth, protect vulnerable sections of society, and achieve national development goals, all while addressing climate change.

The NAPCC outlines eight key missions, with 24 specific initiatives to mitigate the effects of climate change. These missions focus on several critical sectors, including energy generation, transport, renewable energy, disaster management, and capacity building. Despite these proposed actions, the NAPCC lacks clear targets and detailed action plans for implementation. One of the significant challenges is ensuring the effective implementation of these missions at the grassroots level, where diverse regional issues and challenges exist.

The eight missions proposed by the NAPCC are:

1. National Solar Mission: Aims to promote the use of solar energy as a clean alternative to fossil fuels.
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Focuses on improving energy efficiency across various sectors to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: Encourages sustainable urban development, focusing on reducing energy consumption and improving waste management in cities.
4. National Water Mission: Works towards water conservation and sustainable management of water resources.
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: Aims to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem and ensure its sustainability.
6. National Mission for a “Green India”: Focuses on increasing forest cover and enhancing carbon sequestration through afforestation and reforestation.
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: Promotes sustainable agricultural practices that conserve resources and increase resilience to climate change.
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: Focuses on building the scientific knowledge base and increasing awareness about climate change and its impacts.

These missions are critical for mitigating climate change, but their success largely depends on their effective implementation across different regions of India. Given the country’s geographical and ecological diversity, the impact of climate change will vary from region to region. Therefore, a one-size-fits-all approach at the national level may not be sufficient to address the specific challenges faced by different states.

State-Level Action Plans on Climate Change

Recognizing the diverse challenges posed by climate change across different regions, the Government of India has encouraged states to create state-level action plans on climate change. In August 2009, the Prime Minister urged states to develop their own plans aligned with the NAPCC’s strategy. These plans aim to help local communities and ecosystems adapt to climate change and to complement the broader goals of the NAPCC.

Several states have already initiated efforts to develop these action plans. For example, the Government of Himachal Pradesh and Karnataka sought technical assistance and funding from the World Bank to implement their climate change action plans. Delhi launched its action plan in November 2009, detailing various activities and initiatives to mitigate climate change impacts. In Kerala, a steering committee was set up to oversee the preparation of the state’s action plan. Similarly, Gujarat took proactive measures by establishing a dedicated department for climate change, while Orissa developed a draft action plan that was circulated for feedback.

While these steps indicate positive movement at the state level, much work remains to be done. Many of these plans, though created, have yet to lead to significant action on the ground. The implementation of these plans, particularly at the grassroots level, remains a major challenge, as states need both financial resources and technical support to turn these action plans into tangible outcomes.

Overall, while the NAPCC lays out a comprehensive strategy for addressing climate change at the national level, its success will depend heavily on the ability of both the central government and the individual states to implement and monitor these initiatives effectively. The participation of all stakeholders—government, businesses, and communities—is essential to ensure the long-term success of India’s climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, climate change represents an existential challenge requiring immediate and sustained global efforts. Its wide-reaching impacts on ecosystems, economies, and human livelihoods highlight the urgency for international collaboration and sustainable practices. While initiatives like the Kyoto Protocol and Copenhagen Summit laid foundations for addressing this crisis, their limitations underscore the need for more robust, enforceable commitments. A shift towards renewable energy, equitable resource management, and climate-resilient development is essential. By recognizing climate change as a shared responsibility, humanity can strive for a balanced future that protects the planet for current and future generations. The time to act is now.