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Liberalism can be defined as a political ideology that prioritizes the interests and goals of individuals over those of society as a whole or the state. The term “liber” has diverse meanings, originating from the Latin word that referred to a class of free men. When we refer to “liberalism,” we are referring to a political movement that emphasizes the liberty of individuals as the primary objective of public policy.
The core principle of liberal ideology is to create a society where people can pursue their interests and achieve personal fulfillment. Liberal societies are structured around the principles of constitutionalism and consent, aimed at safeguarding citizens from the perils of government tyranny. There are notable distinctions between classical liberalism and modern liberalism. Classical liberalism supports a limited state, while modern liberalism acknowledges that the state should provide assistance to enable people to help themselves.
The origins and development of liberalism can be traced back to early settled communities, where people sought ways to engage in trade and coexist with strangers, as argued by thinkers like Paul Seabright. However, as a fully developed ideology, liberalism emerged from the decline of feudalism in Europe and the rise of a market or capitalist society.
Liberals challenged the absolute power of monarchies, which was often based on the notion of the divine rights of kings. The 19th century marked a significant era for liberalism. As it spread across Western countries, liberals advocated for an industrialized and market-based economic system that was free from government interference. This system first took root in the United Kingdom in the mid-18th century and then extended to North America and throughout Europe.
From the 20th century onwards, developing countries began to show interest in industrial capitalism. The nature of liberalism evolved and shifted towards modern liberalism as the rising middle classes succeeded in establishing their economic and political dominance.
As feudalism gave way to societies that were increasingly focused on markets, individuals found themselves facing a wider array of choices and social opportunities. This shift encouraged them to develop independent thinking for the first time. It was recognized that each individual possessed unique and valuable qualities.
C.B. Macpherson described early liberalism as “possessive individualism,” which viewed the individual as the rightful owner of their own being and abilities, without owing anything to society for them. However, later liberals believed that self-interest should be balanced with a sense of social responsibility towards those who were incapable of caring for themselves.
Liberals reject the notion that individuals possess an absolute entitlement to unlimited freedom, as unrestricted liberty can potentially lead to the abuse of others. In his work “On Liberty” published in 1859, John Stuart Mill argued that the only justifiable exercise of power over any member of a civilized community, against their will, is to prevent harm to others. Isaiah Berlin, in his essay “Two Concepts of Liberty,” distinguished between negative freedom, embraced by early liberals, which refers to freedom from interference, and positive freedom, supported by modern liberals, defined as the capacity to be one’s own master.
Liberals argue that a balanced and tolerant society can only be achieved through the presence of a sovereign state. They believe that freedom can only exist within the framework of the law, as famously stated by John Locke: “Where there is no law, there is no freedom.” Thus, the role of a liberal state is crucial in safeguarding our freedom from ourselves.
Liberals are convinced that the government, by exercising sovereign power, poses a constant threat to individual liberty. This sentiment is captured in Lord Acton’s well-known warning: “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” To counter this, liberals advocate for the establishment of a constitution or a set of rules. Among these, a written constitution holds particular significance, with the United States Constitution being the first notable example.
Additionally, constitutionalism can be reinforced through internal constraints that distribute political power among various institutions. This concept of separation of powers, as proposed by Montesquieu, emphasizes the idea that power should serve as a check on power.
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Types of LiberalismÂ
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Classical liberalism is a political ideology that emerged during the early industrialization period in the 19th century. It emphasizes individual freedom, limited government, and free markets. Central to classical liberalism is the belief in the inherent rights and liberties of individuals, such as life, liberty, and property. It advocates for a minimal state, where the government’s primary role is to protect these rights and provide essential public goods. Classical liberals argue that free markets, unencumbered by excessive government regulation, allow for voluntary exchanges, efficient resource allocation, and overall prosperity. They value individualism, emphasizing personal autonomy, self-reliance, and individual responsibility. Classical liberals also emphasize the rule of law as a means to protect individual rights, ensure fairness, and restrain government power. This ideology has played a significant role in shaping democratic systems, human rights, and economic liberalism across the globe, promoting a society that values individual freedom and limited government intervention.
Neoliberalism is a policy model that encompasses both politics and economics, aiming to shift control of economic factors from the public sector to the private sector. Many neoliberal policies focus on enhancing the functioning of free market capitalism while imposing limitations on government spending, regulation, and public ownership. It is commonly associated with the leadership of figures like Margaret Thatcher, the former UK Prime Minister, and Ronald Reagan, the 40th President of the United States. Neoliberalism should not be confused with libertarianism, as neoliberals generally advocate for more government intervention in the economy and society compared to libertarians. Neoliberals often support progressive taxation, while libertarians favor approaches like a flat tax rate for all taxpayers. The distinction between neoliberals and libertarians lies in the degree of trust they have in the government’s ability to address problems effectively.
Modern liberalism is a political ideology that emerged in the 20th century. It emphasizes the role of government in addressing social and economic inequalities, promoting social justice, and protecting individual rights. Modern liberals advocate for policies such as welfare programs, equal rights, and government regulation of the economy. They support progressive taxation to redistribute wealth and prioritize civil liberties, cultural diversity, and environmental sustainability. Modern liberalism seeks to strike a balance between individual freedom and collective responsibility, with an active state working towards a fair and inclusive society.
Liberalism in a Global Age
Liberalism in a Global Age can be characterized by three main aspects. Firstly, neoliberalism, which is closely associated with economic globalization. Secondly, liberal democracy, which has expanded beyond its traditional Western origins to become a global force. The collapse of communism further fueled optimism about the superiority of Western liberal democracy. Thirdly, the advancement of globalization has brought about an ethical dimension. As people become more aware of global events, their moral sensibilities extend beyond their own nation. This cosmopolitan perspective is linked to the concept of global justice, where individuals recognize the importance of considering the well-being and rights of people worldwide. In this globalized era, liberalism encompasses economic, political, and ethical dimensions that transcend national boundaries.
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Liberalism remains a significant political ideology in the modern world, advocating for individual freedoms, limited government intervention, and the pursuit of social justice. It has evolved and adapted to the challenges of globalization, while continuing to champion the values of liberty, equality, and human rights.
