New Delhi: The India Justice Report (IJR) 2025, released on April 15, 2025, lays bare the persistent challenges plaguing India’s justice system, exposing a landscape marked by chronic under-resourcing, stark gender and caste disparities, and operational inefficiencies. This fourth edition, a collaborative effort spearheaded by Tata Trusts alongside civil society organizations such as DAKSH, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Common Cause, and Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy, evaluates states and Union Territories (UTs) across 24 indicators spanning four pillars: police, judiciary, prisons, and legal aid. While southern states like Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana shine as top performers, the report underscores deep-rooted issues—overcrowded prisons, judicial backlogs, and inadequate representation of marginalized groups—that threaten equitable access to justice. Yet, amidst these challenges, incremental progress in areas like digitalization and legal aid offers a glimmer of hope.

A Troubled Justice System: Key Structural Issues

The IJR 2025 reveals systemic inefficiencies that disproportionately impact marginalized communities, including Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC), women, and minorities. Below, we break down the critical challenges across each pillar of the justice system.

Police: Understaffed, Male-Dominated, and Lacking Diversity

India’s police force is critically understaffed, with a 23% vacancy rate nationwide and over 50% of forensic staff positions unfilled. This shortage delays investigations, particularly in cases requiring forensic analysis, with over 30,000 cases pending nationally—11,047 in Uttar Pradesh alone and 6,688 in Maharashtra. States like Bihar and Jharkhand face severe shortages, with fewer than one forensic expert per lakh population. Despite a marginal increase in forensic labs (from 94 in 2020 to 110 in 2024), the infrastructure cannot keep pace with rising demand.

Gender representation remains a significant concern. Women make up just 11.75% of the police force, with only 8% in senior roles like Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP). No state or UT has met the central government’s 33% reservation quota for women, set in 2009. Only Delhi adheres to the mandate of one woman sub-inspector and 10 women constables per police station. Infrastructure gaps compound these issues: 17% of police stations lack CCTV coverage, violating Supreme Court guidelines, and 30% do not have women’s help desks. The national average for police training budgets is a mere 1.25%, limiting professional development.

Caste disparities are equally stark. While SC, ST, and OBC personnel constitute 59% of the police workforce, 61% are concentrated at the constable level, with minimal representation in officer ranks. States like Uttar Pradesh (61% SC underrepresentation), Rajasthan (52%), and Bihar (42%) fall short of mandated quotas. Karnataka is the only large state meeting SC, ST, and OBC quotas in both police and judiciary, setting a benchmark for others.

Judiciary: Overburdened and Underrepresented

India’s judiciary is buckling under a staggering backlog of over 5 crore cases as of January 2025, a 20% increase from 2020. Alarmingly, 61% of high court cases and 46% of district court cases have been pending for over three years, with 12% stuck for more than a decade. States like Bihar (71% of district court cases pending over three years), Meghalaya, and West Bengal fare poorly, while Punjab, Chhattisgarh, and Haryana show better clearance rates.

The judiciary faces a severe shortage of judges, with a national judge-to-population ratio of 15 per 10 lakh people—far below the 50 recommended by the 1987 Law Commission. As of early 2025, high courts report 33% vacancies, and subordinate courts 21%, with Allahabad High Court operating at over 50% vacancy. India has 21,285 judges against a sanctioned strength of 26,927, resulting in overwhelming caseloads: district court judges handle 2,200 cases on average, while high court judges manage 1,000. In Uttar Pradesh, judges grapple with 4,300 cases each, and in Kerala, 3,800.

Gender diversity is limited, with women constituting 37.4% of judges overall—38% in subordinate courts but only 14% in high courts. Just one of 17 Supreme Court judges is a woman. Only Telangana and Sikkim exceed the 33% benchmark for women in high courts, while Uttarakhand, Tripura, and Meghalaya have had no women high court judges since 2018. On caste representation, Karnataka alone meets SC, ST, and OBC quotas, while states like Gujarat and Odisha fulfill just 2% of ST quotas.

Despite these challenges, the case clearance rate (CCR) shows improvement, with subordinate courts achieving 96% in 2024, and 18 states disposing of more cases than received. High courts, however, lag at 94%.

Prisons: Overcrowded and Understaffed

India’s prisons are in crisis, with a national occupancy rate of 131%, up from 118.5% in recent years. States like Uttarakhand (183%), Uttar Pradesh (176%), and Delhi (174%) face dire conditions, with 176 prisons operating at over 200% capacity. In Uttar Pradesh, nine prisons exceed 250% occupancy, and two jails in Delhi’s Tihar complex—Central Jail Number 1 and Number 4—report 411% and 467% occupancy, respectively. Muradabad prison in Uttar Pradesh recorded a staggering 497% occupancy rate.

The undertrial population has surged to 76% of all prisoners, up from 66% a decade ago, reflecting procedural delays and systemic biases. Marginalized groups are disproportionately affected: SC and ST communities, along with Muslims (17.4% of undertrials despite being 14.2% of the population), make up over 32% of undertrials. In Delhi, 91% of inmates are undertrials. Staffing shortages exacerbate the crisis, with 30% of prison staff positions vacant nationally.

Budget allocations for prisons have risen by 156% over the past decade, with per-day expenditure per prisoner increasing from ₹62 to ₹121. However, fund utilization remains suboptimal, and living conditions are “lamentable,” with only 68% of inmates having adequate sleeping space, per the 2023 Justice Amita Roy Committee Report. Former Supreme Court Justice Madan B. Lokur highlighted that poor prison conditions hinder extraditions, citing a UK court’s denial of Sanjay Bhandari’s extradition due to Tihar Jail’s “unsafe conditions.”

Legal Aid: Underfunded and Underutilized

Legal aid, mandated under Article 39A of the Constitution, is woefully under-resourced. Several states have just one legal aid lawyer for every 10,000–30,000 eligible citizens, and issues like inadequate training, delayed payments, and poor working conditions undermine effectiveness. Awareness is a major barrier, with many eligible individuals unaware of their right to free legal counsel. The number of Para Legal Volunteers (PLVs) has plummeted by 38% since 2019, with states like Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu seeing over 70% declines. Village legal aid clinics have dropped from 14,000 in 2017–18 to 3,659 in 2024, with each clinic now serving an average of 163 villages.

Despite these setbacks, progress is evident. The Legal Aid Defence Counsel System (LADCS) has been rolled out in over 600 districts, and women constitute 42% of PLVs, 31% of District Legal Services Authority (DLSA) secretaries, and 28% of panel lawyers. Lok Adalats disposed of 52% of 22.5 lakh cases in 2023–24, with Telangana and Delhi achieving over 90% clearance rates. Karnataka leads legal aid rankings, followed by Punjab and Uttarakhand, due to consistent budgetary support and staffing.

State Rankings: Southern States Shine, Others Falter

Among large states, Karnataka retains its top rank with a score of 6.78/10, followed by Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Southern states dominate, with Kerala and Tamil Nadu also in the top five, reflecting strong governance and investment in justice delivery. Tamil Nadu excels in prison management, achieving 100% budget utilization and optimal staff-inmate ratios. In contrast, Gujarat has plummeted from fourth to eleventh place, driven by declines in police, judiciary, and prison indicators. Punjab has also dropped due to human resource gaps and poor budget utilization. Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Bihar remain among the lowest performers, while Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh show modest improvements.

Kerala leads in the judiciary pillar, followed by Telangana and Tamil Nadu, with Rajasthan climbing 11 ranks to sixth due to better spending and reduced vacancies. Haryana has shown the most improvement in legal aid since 2022.

Transparency and Accountability Gaps

The IJR 2025 flags serious issues with data availability and transparency. Several states failed to provide recent data on case backlogs, police vacancies, and legal aid budgets. State Human Rights Commissions (SHRCs), meant to safeguard citizens’ rights, are “chronically disabled” by staff shortages and low autonomy. Only 10 of 23 assessed SHRCs have a full bench, and states like Jharkhand, Haryana, and Telangana lack chairpersons or members. Jharkhand disposed of zero cases in 2023–24 due to a complete lack of staff. SHRCs often dismiss cases en masse, with West Bengal rejecting 93% of complaints “in limine” (without inquiry). Only 4% of cases are taken up suo moto, raising concerns about proactive functioning.

Suggested Reforms for a Stronger Justice System

The IJR 2025 proposes 11 actionable reforms to address these challenges:

1. Gender-Inclusive Recruitment: Enforce women’s reservation in senior police and judicial roles with transparent audits and mid-level lateral entry for women officers.
2. Police Infrastructure Upgrades: Ensure universal CCTV coverage, digitized FIR systems, and women’s help desks at every station.
3. Judicial Staffing and AIJS: Implement a standardized recruitment calendar and establish an All India Judicial Service (AIJS) for lower courts to reduce vacancies.
4. Legal Aid Revamp: Strengthen community-based legal aid, taluka clinics, and PLV networks, with increased per capita budgets and civil society involvement.
5. Prison Decongestion: Expand parole, open prisons, and medical staffing to address overcrowding and improve living conditions.
6. Performance-Linked Funding: Reward states showing year-on-year improvements in vacancy reduction, training, and technology adoption with increased grants.
7. Forensic Capacity Building: Increase forensic labs and staff to clear backlogs and expedite investigations.
8. Transparency in SHRCs: Mandate annual reports, functional websites, and independent investigation wings for SHRCs.
9. Fast-Track Courts: Expand special courts to reduce judicial pendency, particularly for undertrials.
10. Digital Integration: Scale up e-Sewa Kendras, live-streaming, and the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG) for better access and efficiency.
11. Diversity Quotas: Strictly enforce SC, ST, and OBC quotas across police and judiciary to ensure equitable representation.

Conclusion: A Call for Holistic Reform

The India Justice Report 2025 reflects both India’s aspirations for a just society and the formidable challenges in achieving it. While southern states demonstrate progress through governance and investment, systemic issues—vacancies, overcrowding, and marginalization—persist nationwide. Digital tools, increased gender representation, and improved case clearance rates offer hope, but core capacity deficits demand urgent attention. A holistic, sustained, and accountable approach, backed by performance-linked funding and robust reforms, is essential to transform India’s justice system into one that is accessible, efficient, and inclusive for all.

For marginalized communities, justice remains painfully slow and often out of reach. The IJR 2025 serves as a clarion call for policymakers, urging them to prioritize reforms that address these inequities and uphold the constitutional promise of justice for every citizen.

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