John Stuart Mill was a 19th-century philosopher and economist known for his influential writings on individual liberty, utilitarian ethics, and the potential dangers of majority tyranny in democratic societies. His ideas continue to shape modern political and ethical discourse.
Introduction
John Stuart Mill, a prominent figure in the 19th century, was a philosopher, economist, and advocate for women’s rights. Born on May 20, 1806, in London, he was the eldest son of historian and philosopher James Mill. Unlike many of his contemporaries, John Stuart Mill’s education took an unconventional path. Instead of attending a formal school or university, he received his education under the watchful guidance of his father James Mill and his close friend Jeremy Bentham. This unique upbringing laid the foundation for Mill’s intellectual development.
Table of Contents
Early Years and Career
Mill’s early years were marked by extensive self-study and a burgeoning interest in social and political issues. He began contributing articles to the “Westminster Review” and quickly rose to the position of its editor. This early foray into journalism showcased his talent for articulating complex ideas and laid the groundwork for his later influential writings.
At the age of 20, in 1826, Mill faced a significant health setback and grappled with severe depression. However, he managed to recover and, by 1827, embarked on a career with the British East India Company, where he would serve for nearly three decades.
In addition to his career in the East India Company, Mill was a member of the British Parliament from 1865 to 1868. During his time in Parliament, he passionately advocated for women’s suffrage and workers’ rights, highlighting his commitment to social reform.
Influence of Harriet Taylor
Throughout his life, Mill’s wife, Harriet Taylor, played a crucial role in shaping his ideas and writings. Her influence can be seen in the evolution of his philosophical and political thought.
Major Works by J.S Mill
Mill’s major works are a testament to his profound impact on philosophy and politics:
- A System Of Logic (1843)
- Principles Of Political Economy (1848)
- On Liberty (1859)
- Considerations On Representative Government (1861)
- Utilitarianism (1863)
- The Subjection Of Women (1869)
Note – Philosophy of J.S Mill – R.P Anschertz
An Equal Freedom for Women by J.S Mill
One of Mill’s most notable contributions to the realm of social reform was his work, The Subjection of Women. In this groundbreaking treatise, he applied the principles of liberty to the position of women in society. Mill fervently argued that “Freedom is the first and strongest want of human nature,” and he sought to dismantle the legal and societal structures that subordinated women.
According to Mill, the English Marriage Contract law was a significant factor in the subordination of women. This law denied women the right to hold property in their own names and prevented them from becoming guardians of their children. Shockingly, there were no legal provisions against marital rape during Mill’s time.
Mill recognized that, in the modern age, principles like liberty and equality had led to the abolition of practices like slavery, but women’s rights were still denied. He argued that this was because “All men had an interest in Women’s Subordination.”
Mill believed that women were raised to believe that submission and yielding to the control of others were their ideal characteristics, perpetuating the cycle of subjugation.
Four advantages of Women Rights to Society
In The Subjection of Women, Mill eloquently explained the societal benefits of granting women equal rights:
Ending Despotic Family Structures: Granting women equality would put an end to despotic family structures that were incongruent with democratic societies. Democracy thrives when its citizens are free to participate in the governing process. Hence, women participation will strengthen Democracy.
Expanding Intellectual Capacities: Providing women with equal opportunities would double the pool of intellectual talent in society, fostering healthy competition and improving overall performance.
Positive Influence on Mankind: Equality for women would undoubtedly have a positive impact on humanity, as it would encourage the development of a more equitable and just society.
Utilitarian Happiness: Mill’s philosophy was rooted in utilitarianism, and he argued that equal rights for women would lead to the greatest happiness for the greatest number. By providing women with equal rights and opportunities, the happiness of women and society as a whole would multiply.
Concept of Liberty by J.S Mill
Individual liberty is a cornerstone of human society, offering people the freedom to make their own choices and nurturing their mental and moral faculties such as perception, judgment, mental activity, moral preference, reasoning, decision-making, and self-control. These freedoms empower individuals to lead meaningful lives and shape their destinies.
J.S Mill while advocating for individual liberty, argued that this liberty profoundly improves the moral and mental powers of human beings when they exercise three specific liberties:
Liberty of Thought and Expression: The ability to think freely and express one’s ideas without fear of censorship or suppression is essential for intellectual growth and societal progress.
Liberty of Action: The freedom to make choices and take actions according to one’s own will is crucial for personal development and self-fulfillment.
Liberty of Association: The right to form associations and engage with others in pursuit of common goals fosters collaboration and community-building.
Mill’s defense of freedom of thought and expression is particularly compelling. He asserted, “If all mankind minus one were of one opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing mankind.” This powerful statement underscores the importance of respecting diverse perspectives and allowing individuals to voice their ideas. He stated that “Placing restrictions on freedom of expression of human beings is like robbing off the present and the future races”.
John Stuart Mill’s advocacy for individual liberty stemmed from his belief in the continuous improvement of human beings in moral, mental, and material facets. He argued that individual liberty leads to a better and more advanced society. Mill drew a clear distinction between self-regarding and other-regarding actions, stating, The only part of the conduct of any one for which he is amenable to society is that which concerns others. In the part that merely concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. “Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.” In essence, individuals should have complete control over their own lives and decisions, and society should only intervene when harm to others is at stake; this came to be known as the “Harm principle” i.e the only purpose to use power is right if it is to prevent harm to others.
Critique of Utilitarianism by J.S Mill
Mill took issue with Bentham’s Utilitarianism, asserting that it overlooked individual character. In response, Mill modified Utilitarianism by introducing elements such as moral motives, a sense of universal altruism, empathy, and a novel concept of impartial justice.
Despite his criticisms, Mill did not completely abandon Utilitarianism. He incorporated utilitarian principles into his notions of liberty and democracy. For instance, he argued that granting equal rights to women would contribute to increased happiness. He also defended liberty on the grounds of its social utility and regarded liberal democracy as the optimal form of government due to its positive impact on the quality of its citizens.
For Mill, the ultimate goal of life was not merely pleasure but rather happiness and the dignity of humanity. He believed that happiness encompassed the perfection of human nature, the cultivation of moral virtues, self-control over desires, and recognition of both individual and collective interests.
Mill expanded Utilitarianism beyond the mere measurement of pleasure and pain, emphasizing that the quality of pleasure and pain matters. He famously stated, “It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied,” highlighting the significance of both the quantity and quality of pleasure.
Mill aimed to reconcile individual and societal interests, contending that individuals should act in the best interest of society because the pleasures derived from benefiting society might outweigh those pursued through self-service, given that individuals are inherently social beings.
He considered the concept of a “felicific calculus” as absurd, as it was impossible to objectively measure pleasures.
Mill connected justice with rights, asserting that injustice infringes upon rights. He believed that certain rights were essential for individual progress within society, and thus, he justified these rights through the lens of utility.
Democracy and Representative Government by J.S Mill
Mill believed that civil liberties were vulnerable in democratic regimes unless citizens remained vigilant. However, as long as citizens were watchful, he regarded Democracy or Representative Government as the most favorable form of governance.
In his work “Considerations on Representative Government,” Mill contended that the best government should serve two primary functions: utilizing citizens’ talents and abilities to serve their interests, and enhancing their moral, intellectual, and active capacities.
But for democracy to function safely J.S Mill laid down several conditions for representative government. The government could function only with those citizens who were active and self helping in character. The backward civilizations where citizens were passive could not run a representative democracy. The citizens had to be willing to preserve institutions of representative democracy. He pleaded for plural voting in order to balance the numerical majority in a democracy. He made sure that educated people were given more votes. He held that “Liberty cannot be utilized properly if people are not educated enough”.
He further quoted that “No one but a fool and only a fool of a peculiar description, feels offended by the acknowledgement that there are others whose opinion and even whose wish is entitled to greater amount of consideration than this”. Wayper called him a “reluctant democrat”.
Meanwhile, Ernest Barker regarded “Mill as prophet of an empty liberty and an abstract individual” because of his double standards of liberty where he gives more consideration to people who are more educated and restricts the essence of actual liberty that every individual deserves irrespectively.
Tyranny of Majority
Mill’s perspective on safeguarding individual liberty is broad, as he does not solely rely on popular sovereignty for protection against threats to human freedom. Instead, he aligns himself with thinkers like Benjamin Constant and Alexis de Tocqueville, sharing the view that the tyranny of the majority poses a significant danger in an era of popular governance. Mill’s concern about potential encroachments on individual liberty extends beyond the idea that popular rule alone is sufficient for safeguarding human freedom.
He further provides a view that due to this popular government there are three potential threats to minorities – State, Mass society and Populism. These threats can undermine the interests of minorities. Mill was worried that the influence of public opinion has the potential to suppress individuality, and he sees these informal societal pressures as a type of coercion. He believes that the dominance of public opinion can be just as detrimental to human freedom as the imposition of legal constraints.
Economy and State Intervention by J.S Mill
When did not represent the classical economic theory of laissez faire he advocated that some areas of interference should be there. He preferred laissez-faire to state intervention in matters of social and economic policy. Even though the idea of laissez faire is ideal, it could be set aside for welfare works like education and child care etc. He believed that the state must ensure that no one is starving. He further quoted “Political liberty in absence of economic liberty is a myth”.
Mill viewed the State as a moral institution with a primary concern for promoting virtue and excellence in individuals’ lives. He stressed that the concept of a good life was more crucial than a life solely devoted to pursuing pleasure. “State is the moral institution with a moral end”. But at the same time the state should not interfere in the affairs of individuals.
Wayper contended that J.S Mill shows a good deal of sympathy for socialism and wishes to use the state to remove obstacles in the way of individual development.
Conclusion
John Stuart Mill was a highly influential philosopher, economist, and political thinker of the 19th century. His works, particularly “On Liberty” and “Utilitarianism,” continue to shape modern discussions on individual freedom, ethics, and the role of government in society. Mill’s emphasis on the importance of individual autonomy, the pursuit of happiness, and the principle of utility has left a lasting legacy, making him a pivotal figure in the development of liberal and utilitarian thought. His ideas remain relevant and continue to inspire debates on the delicate balance between personal liberty and the collective good in contemporary societies.
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