“Political theory is the most salient feature of politics in the past and continues to illuminate its future.”
— Sheldon Wolin

Introduction to Political Theory

Political theory is a fundamental component of political science, recently recognized as an academic field. Historically, those involved in this discipline identified themselves as philosophers or scientists. The term “political theory” is apt for describing the intellectual tradition that seeks to transcend immediate practical concerns and critically examine societal existence. Political theory was once synonymous with political science, emphasizing that true science involves theory.

Political Theory and Related Concepts

Political theory is distinct yet often conflated with terms like political science, political philosophy, and political ideology. Political science aims to generate generalizations and laws about politics and behavior, while political theory philosophically or ethically evaluates political phenomena, processes, and institutions. It addresses the question of the best political order within the context of an ideal life in a larger community, making the study of classical texts crucial due to their timeless insights into life and society.

Political theories are not definitive understandings of events but open to future interpretations, each offering new perspectives on political life. Political theory is critical, offering an elevated understanding of politics compared to ordinary views. Political theory provides ideas and concepts for analysis, description, explanation, and criticism, which political science incorporates.

Political philosophy tackles questions of justice, rights, and the relationship between ‘is’ and ‘ought,’ making it a subset of normative political theory. Political thought includes the ideas of the community, including writings and speeches by politicians, commentators, reformers, and ordinary individuals, capturing the societal context and historical moments.

Political theory, unlike political thought, involves speculation by individuals articulated in treatises, focusing on theories of institutions like the state, law, and elections. It explains attitudes and actions from political life, emphasizing relationships between concepts and circumstances. Political philosophy resolves conflicts between political theories that may seem equally valid in different contexts.

Political ideology is a comprehensive doctrine proposing a universal theory of human nature and society with a detailed program for achieving it. John Locke and Marxism are classic examples of ideologies, each aiming to change rather than merely interpret the world. Ideologies are dogmatic, discouraging critical appraisal in their pursuit of a perfect society, contrasting with the more reflective and critical nature of political theory.

Developments in Political Theory

Political theories evolve in response to societal changes, as symbolized by Hegel’s metaphor of the owl of Minerva. While political thought is bound by time and space, political theory transcends these limitations to explain political phenomena broadly. Political theorists seek principles to improve life, motivated by real political situations. The history of political theory shows how societal issues inspire theoretical development, questioning accepted principles and practices to propose future improvements.

Defining Political Theory

Definitions of political theory vary based on emphasis and understanding. Sabine describes it as incorporating factual, causal, and valuational elements. Hecker sees it as a dispassionate and disinterested activity, offering philosophical and scientific knowledge that enhances our understanding of the present and future. Political theory is a coherent set of propositions with explanatory principles about political phenomena, focusing on specific issues rather than a multitude.

The Importance of Theoretical Concepts

For newcomers, studying institutions may seem sufficient to understand society, but institutional arrangements differ based on underlying ideas. This raises the question of whether reality shapes ideas or vice versa. Political theory is essential for understanding the foundational concepts that inform societal structures.

Is Political Theory Dead?

In the mid-20th century, some proclaimed the death of political theory, criticizing its value-laden nature beyond empirical testing. Logical positivists and behavioralists challenged normative theory, with Easton attributing its decline to historicism, moral relativism, hyper-factualism, and positivism.

Revival of Political Theory

In the 1930s, political theory focused on the history of ideas to defend liberal democracy against totalitarianism. Scholars like Arendt, Adorno, Marcuse, and Strauss revitalized political theory, emphasizing the uniqueness of human responsibility, the importance of classical theory, and the critique of behavioralism. They argued that political theory should focus on truth and the principles of a right order in society, countering the empirical approach that neglected normative issues.

Approaches in Political Theory

Identifying and categorizing various conceptions of political theory is challenging due to the tendency of contemporary theorists to draw from multiple traditions and conceptions. This hybrid nature of contemporary political theory contrasts with the past, where theorists maintained a purer approach within chosen frameworks. Nevertheless, three broad conceptions are generally recognized in both past and present political theories: Historical, Normative, and Empirical.

Historical Approach

The historical approach to political theory builds on insights and resources from history. Prominent exponents like Sabine argue that political theory responds to historical events and specific situations. Thus, political theory becomes situation-dependent, solving problems set by historical contexts. This approach respects tradition and historical continuity, emphasizing that the past is a valuable guide and a source of collective wisdom that can foster imagination.

However, the historical approach has its limitations. While the past provides valuable insights, each specific situation is unique, with new challenges that may render historical solutions redundant. Therefore, while historically-informed values remain suggestive, the theoretical function of this approach diminishes over time.

Normative Approach

The normative conception, also known as philosophical or ethical theory, interprets the world through logic, purpose, and ends, using the theorist’s intuition, reasoning, and experiences. It focuses on questions about the ends of political institutions, the relationship between individuals and social organizations, and the ideal arrangements in society. Normative theorists, often leaning towards political philosophy, aim to establish absolute norms and create ideal models or ‘utopias’.

Leo Strauss advocated for normative theory, arguing that political phenomena are inherently subject to moral judgment. However, critics of normativism point out the relativity of values, the cultural basis of ethics, the ideological content of the enterprise, and its abstract and utopian nature. Ethical values are subjective and context-dependent, making the creation of absolute standards problematic. Despite this, recent normative theories, like John Rawls’ “A Theory of Justice,” attempt to anchor moral arguments in empirical findings, blending normative and empirical approaches.

Empirical Approach

Dominating the twentieth century, the empirical approach, rooted in positivism, derives theories from empirical observations, rejecting value judgments as mere opinions. This approach seeks scientific and objective knowledge of political phenomena, aiming for value-free, empirically verifiable theories. The behavioral revolution of the 1950s emphasized quantitative analysis, empirical research, and specialization, rejecting normative frameworks and historical ideas.

However, the empirical approach faced criticism for reducing thought to an aspect of reality and blurring the distinction between thought and reality. Philosophers like Karl Popper, with his principle of ‘falsification,’ and Thomas Kuhn, in “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions,” highlighted the conjectural and interpretive nature of all knowledge, challenging the empirical approach’s claim to objective truth.

Contemporary Approach

Emerging in the 1980s and 90s, contemporary political theory critiques established traditions, particularly the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and science. It questions universal claims and grand narratives, emphasizing the particularity of social and temporal contexts. The contemporary approach includes various theoretical trends, such as post-structuralism, post-modernism, communitarianism, and multiculturalism, each with distinct concerns and commitments.

Contemporary theorists oppose universalism, critiquing liberal universalism as socially and temporally context-devoid. They argue that universal principles often mask particular experiences and values as universal norms. This approach also critiques grand narratives, rejecting transcendental foundations of reality and truth.

The post-positivist strand in contemporary theory dismisses value-free enterprises, asserting that political theory is inherently normative and politically engaged. It advocates for empirical and comparative approaches before making generalizations, emphasizing context sensitivity. However, contemporary theories face challenges due to their relative and diffusive nature, which may hinder coherent political projects.

Conclusion

In conclusion, political theory stands as a critical and multifaceted discipline within political science, embodying both scientific and philosophical endeavors to understand and prescribe principles for a just society. It transcends immediate practical concerns, offering a deeper and critical perspective on political phenomena while evolving in response to societal changes. Definitions of political theory emphasize its role in providing coherent explanations and principles about political phenomena, essential for understanding and improving societal structures.

The approaches to political theory—historical, normative, and empirical—each contribute unique perspectives. The historical approach values tradition and past insights, though it may struggle with the uniqueness of contemporary challenges. The normative approach, focusing on ethical and philosophical questions, strives to establish absolute norms but faces critiques regarding the relativity of values and cultural contexts. The empirical approach, emphasizing scientific objectivity and empirical research, has dominated recent centuries but is critiqued for its reductionist tendencies and failure to account for the interpretive nature of knowledge.

Contemporary political theory, emerging in the late 20th century, critiques established traditions and emphasizes the particularity of social and temporal contexts. It rejects universal claims and grand narratives, advocating for context-sensitive and normatively engaged political analysis. Despite its challenges, contemporary theory offers new avenues for understanding social and political reality, fostering creativity and guiding future political theory.

Ultimately, political theory’s importance lies in its ability to blend empirical findings with normative thinking through rigorous criticism, achieving a balanced approach that can foster creativity and guide the continuous evolution of political thought. Through its diverse approaches and critical perspectives, political theory remains indispensable for comprehending and shaping the principles that underlie and improve societal structures.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Political Theory

1.Who is considered the father of political theory? 

Ans. Plato, the renowned philosopher from Athens, is widely recognized as the father of political theory. He crafted dialogues centered on his ideologies, addressing fundamental issues like justice, power, law, rights, and governance. His work laid the foundation for political philosophy in the Western tradition.

2. Why study political theory? 

Ans. Political theory is vital for bureaucrats, politicians, government officers, and advocates as it aids in interpreting laws and the constitution. It also enhances understanding of societal issues and helps in devising effective solutions to address these problems.

3. What is the scope of political theory? 

Ans. The scope of political theory encompasses explaining key concepts such as freedom, justice, and equality. It also includes studying ideas like the separation of powers and judicial review by examining arguments from various thinkers who have defended these principles.

4. What are the main features of political theory? 

Ans. Political theory explores the sources and limits of power, and how power can be utilized to achieve different objectives. It also delves into the relationship between the state and the individual, examining how these dynamics influence governance and societal structures.

5. What is the nature of political theory? 

Ans. Political theory involves the study of concepts and principles that people use to describe, explain, and evaluate political events and institutions. It aims to understand, explain, and analyze political phenomena while prescribing methods to rectify any shortcomings within political systems.

6. What is classical political theory? 

Ans. Classical political theory refers to the foundational ideas about politics developed by early Greek thinkers, particularly in Athens. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle introduced concepts such as democracy and the notion of ruling with the people’s consent. These ideas established Athens as a cradle of democratic principles and continue to influence contemporary political thought.