Chapter 2: The Era of One-Party Dominance – Detailed Notes

The Era of One-Party Dominance | Political Science Notes

Objective

This chapter forms a very important part of CUET UG syllabus, and its significance becomes easily understandable when one analyzes past questions. examines the first decade of electoral politics in independent India to understand:

• The establishment of a system of free and fair elections.
• The dominance of the Congress party in the years immediately after Independence.
• The emergence of opposition parties and their policies.

Introduction: The Challenge of Building Democracy 

Independent India faced the immense challenge of nation-building alongside the task of instituting democratic politics. Electoral competition began immediately after independence.

Unlike leaders in many other newly independent nations who feared democracy would introduce conflict and hinder national unity, India’s leaders chose the more difficult path of democracy.

Many post-colonial countries fell into non-democratic rule—nominal democracies, one-party states, or military regimes—often justified as temporary measures to restore order, yet hard to reverse. In contrast, India’s path stemmed from its freedom struggle’s firm commitment to democracy. Leaders viewed politics not as a threat but as a tool to address conflicts and serve the public good.

Echoing this vision, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar cautioned against hero-worship in politics, warning it was “a sure road to degradation and eventual dictatorship,” reinforcing the need for democratic vigilance.

Establishing the Electoral System and the First General Election Setting up the Machinery:

• The Constitution was adopted on 26 Nov 1949, signed on 24 Jan 1950, and came into effect on 26 Jan 1950. The country was initially run by an interim government.
• The first democratically elected government needed to be installed. The Constitution laid down the rules; the machinery had to be created.
• The Election Commission of India was set up in January 1950, with Sukumar Sen as the first Chief Election Commissioner. Initially, elections were expected in 1950.
• Sukumar Sen (1899-1963): An Indian civil servant who served as the first Chief Election Commissioner of India from 1950 to 1958. He played a pivotal role in organizing the first two general elections (1952 and 1957) in India, a monumental task given the country’s size, diversity, and low literacy rates. His meticulous planning and execution earned him international praise.

Extra Fact: Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958): Education Minister in the first cabinet of free India.

Challenges:

• Holding free and fair elections in a country of India’s size proved difficult.
• Tasks included delimitation (drawing constituency boundaries) and preparing electoral rolls (list of eligible voters).
• The first draft electoral roll omitted names of nearly 40 lakh (4 million) women, listing them only as “wife of…” or “daughter of…”. The Election Commission refused these entries, ordering revision or deletion.
• The scale was mammoth: 17 crore (170 million) eligible voters, electing ~3,200 MLAs and 489 Lok Sabha members. Only 15% of voters were literate.
• Over 3 lakh (300,000) officers and polling staff were trained.

Universal Adult Franchise:

• The election tested democracy in a poor, largely illiterate country. At the time, democracy was mostly confined to prosperous, literate nations in Europe and North America. Many European countries hadn’t yet granted universal women’s suffrage.
• India’s experiment with universal adult franchise seemed bold and risky. Critics called it “the biggest gamble in history” and an “absurd farce”. An editor predicted Nehru would “confess the failure” of the system.

Changing Voting Methods:

• First General Election: Separate ballot boxes for each candidate (with their symbol) were placed in polling booths. Voters dropped a blank ballot paper into the box of their chosen candidate. Around 20 lakh (2 million) steel boxes were used. Preparing these boxes was complex, involving labelling with candidate names (in Urdu, Hindi, Punjabi), symbols, constituency details, and sealing.
• Later Elections: After the first two elections, ballot papers listing all candidates’ names and symbols were used. Voters stamped against their chosen candidate. This method lasted nearly 40 years.
• EVMs: Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) were introduced in the late 1990s, and by 2004, the entire country shifted to EVMs.

The 1952 Election:

• Postponed twice, elections were held from October 1951 to February 1952 (referred to as the 1952 election as most voting occurred then). Campaigning, polling, and counting took six months.
• Elections were competitive, with over four candidates per seat on average.
• Participation was encouraging: over half the eligible voters turned out.
• Results were accepted as fair, even by losers. The Indian experiment proved critics wrong. Media hailed it as a success, confounding sceptics and praising the people’s conduct in the world’s largest democratic election experiment.
• International observers were impressed. The 1952 election became a global landmark, proving democracy could be practiced anywhere, regardless of poverty or illiteracy.

Congress Dominance (First Three General Elections: 1952, 1957, 1962) Reasons for Dominance:

• Legacy: Inherited the legacy of the national freedom movement. Many prominent freedom struggle leaders contested as Congress candidates.
• Organisation: Was the only party with a nationwide organisation, down to the local level, at the time. Had the ‘first off the blocks’ advantage.
• Leadership: Had the most popular and charismatic leader, Jawaharlal Nehru, who led the campaign.
• Inclusive Character: As a movement, it was all-inclusive, transforming into a rainbow-like social coalition representing India’s diversity (classes, castes, religions, languages, interests). It also functioned as an ideological coalition, accommodating diverse viewpoints.

Election Results:

• 1952: Congress won 364 out of 489 Lok Sabha seats. The Communist Party of India (CPI) came second with only 16 seats. Congress also won majorities in most state assembly elections held simultaneously, forming governments even in states like Travancore-Cochin, Madras, and Orissa where it initially lacked a majority. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister.
• 1957 & 1962: Congress maintained its Lok Sabha position, winning about three-fourths of the seats. No opposition party won even one-tenth of Congress’s seats. Congress continued to control national and most state governments. (See map illustration showing Congress dominance 1952-1967).

Role of Electoral System (First-Past-The-Post – FPTP):

• The FPTP system artificially boosted the extent of Congress’s victory.
• Congress consistently won a much higher proportion of seats than its vote share. E.g., in 1952, it got 45% of votes but 74% of seats.
• The second largest party by votes (Socialist Party, >10% votes) won less than 3% of seats.
• In FPTP, the party getting more votes than any other single rival often wins a disproportionately large share of seats. Non-Congress votes were split among various rival parties and candidates, allowing Congress to win seats even without a majority of votes in many constituencies.

Case Study: Communist Victory and Dismissal in Kerala (1957-1959)

• In the 1957 Kerala assembly elections, the Communist Party of India (CPI) won the largest number of seats (60 out of 126) and formed the government with the support of five independents.
• E. M. S. Namboodiripad became the Chief Minister, marking the first time in the world a Communist party government came to power through democratic elections.

E. M. S. Namboodiripad (1909-1998): Elamkulam Manakkal Sankaran Namboodiripad was a prominent Indian communist leader and theorist. He was the first non-Congress Chief Minister of Kerala and the first communist chief minister in the world to be democratically elected. A long-time member of the Communist Party of India (CPI), he later became a founding member and leading figure of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) after the split in 1964.

• The CPI government aimed to implement radical and progressive policies.
• The defeated Congress party launched a ‘liberation struggle’ against the elected government. Communists claimed this agitation was led by vested interests and religious organizations.
• In 1959, the central Congress government dismissed the Kerala government using Article 356 of the Constitution.
• This move was highly controversial and cited as a prominent instance of misusing constitutional emergency powers.

Knowledge Box: The Socialist Party emerged from the Congress Socialist Party (CSP), formed in 1934 by young leaders seeking radical change. In 1948, Congress banned dual membership, prompting the Socialists to form an independent party. Though present nationwide, their electoral success was limited. Advocating democratic socialism, they criticized Congress for favoring elites. However, when Congress adopted a socialist goal in 1955, it blurred ideological lines. Leaders like Rammanohar Lohia distanced from Congress, while others, such as Asoka Mehta, sought limited cooperation.

Nature of Congress Dominance Unique Context: 

While many countries experienced one-party dominance, India’s was unique because it occurred under democratic conditions with free and fair multi-party elections. This contrasts with systems where dominance was ensured by compromising democracy (e.g., single-party states like China, Cuba, Syria, or effective one-party states through legal/military means like Myanmar, Egypt). India’s case was similar to the African National Congress’s dominance in post-apartheid South Africa.

Congress as a Coalition:

• Social Coalition: Evolved from an elite group to a mass movement, encompassing diverse, often contradictory, groups: peasants and industrialists, urban and rural dwellers, workers and owners, various classes and castes, religions and languages. Leadership expanded beyond urban elites to include agriculture-based leaders.
• Ideological Coalition: Accommodated a wide spectrum of ideologies: revolutionary and pacifist, conservative and radical, extremist and moderate, right, left, and centre. It served as a ‘platform’ for various groups and even parties during the national movement. Pre-independence, groups like the Congress Socialist Party existed within Congress.

Tolerance and Management of Factions:

• The coalition character necessitated avoiding extreme positions and striking balances, emphasizing compromise and inclusiveness. This made it hard for the opposition, as their potential issues often found space within Congress ideology.
• The party tolerated internal differences and accommodated ambitions of various groups and leaders. Groups unhappy with the party’s position tended to stay within and fight, rather than leaving.
• These internal groups, or factions, were sometimes based on ideology but often on personal ambitions and rivalries.
• Internal factionalism was a strength, not a weakness. It allowed leaders with different interests to remain within Congress. State units were often composed of numerous factions.
• Factions made Congress appear as a grand centrist party. The system functioned as an internal balancing mechanism. Opposition parties often influenced policy indirectly by influencing these factions.
• Political competition primarily occurred within Congress. In the first decade, Congress acted as both the ruling party and the opposition. This period is described as the ‘Congress system’.
•  The Marathi film Simhasan depicts such factional power struggles. This internal dynamic also extended to village party politics, where local leaders aligned with different Congress factions would compete for influence and resources, shaping local power structures and decision-making within the broader Congress framework.

Emergence of Opposition Parties 

Despite Congress dominance, India had numerous diverse and vibrant opposition parties, more than many other multi-party democracies. Some existed before 1952. The roots of almost all contemporary non-Congress parties trace back to the opposition parties of the 1950s.

Role and Significance:

• Gained only token representation in legislatures initially.
• Played a crucial role in maintaining the system’s democratic character.
• Offered sustained and often principled criticism of Congress policies and practices.
• Kept the ruling party under check and influenced the balance of power within Congress.
• Prevented resentment from turning anti-democratic by keeping political alternatives alive.
• Groomed future leaders.

Early Relationships: In the early years, there was mutual respect between Congress and opposition leaders. The interim government included opposition figures like Dr. Ambedkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee. Nehru expressed fondness for the Socialist Party and invited leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan to join his government. This declined as party competition intensified.

Major Opposition Parties of the Era

Socialist Party:

• Origins: In the Congress Socialist Party (CSP), formed within Congress in 1934 by young leaders wanting a more radical Congress.
• Key Figure: Acharya Narendra Dev.
• Forced to separate in 1948 when Congress barred dual party membership.
• Ideology: Believed in democratic socialism, distinguishing them from Congress (seen as favouring capitalists/landlords) and Communists.
• Dilemma: Faced a dilemma when Congress adopted a ‘socialist pattern of society’ goal in 1955, making it hard to present an alternative.
• Splits: Split occurred: Rammanohar Lohia advocated increased criticism of Congress, while Asoka Mehta favoured limited cooperation.
• Underwent many splits and reunions, forming parties like Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, Praja Socialist Party (PSP), Samyukta Socialist Party.
• Other Leaders: Jayaprakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, S.M. Joshi.
• Contemporary Parties: Samajwadi Party, RJD, JD(U), JD(S) trace origins here.
• Acharya Narendra Dev (1889-1956): A prominent socialist leader, scholar, and educationist. He was a leading figure in the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) and played a crucial role in shaping socialist thought in India. He was known for his intellectual depth and commitment to democratic socialism.
• Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979): Popularly known as JP, he was a socialist leader, freedom fighter, and political theorist. Initially a Marxist, he later embraced democratic socialism and Sarvodaya. He was a key figure in the CSP and later the Praja Socialist Party. He famously led the “Total Revolution” movement against Indira Gandhi’s government in the 1970s.
• Achyut Patwardhan (1905-1992): A freedom fighter and socialist leader. He was one of the founders of the Congress Socialist Party. He participated actively in the Quit India Movement, going underground. He later retired from active politics to pursue philosophical interests.
• Asoka Mehta (1911-1984): A socialist politician who was instrumental in organizing the socialist wing of the Indian National Congress. He was a founder member of the Praja Socialist Party and later held various ministerial portfolios in the Union government. He was known for his intellectual contributions to socialist thought.
• Rammanohar Lohia (1910-1967): A fiery and influential socialist leader and political activist. He was a strong critic of the Congress party’s policies and advocated for a distinct, radical socialist path. He was known for his emphasis on social justice, anti-caste movements, and his concept of “Sapta Kranti” (seven revolutions).
• S.M. Joshi (1904-1989): Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi was an Indian independence activist, socialist, and Member of Parliament. He was a prominent figure in the Praja Socialist Party and the Samyukta Socialist Party, and played a significant role in the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti movement for a united Marathi-speaking state.

The Communist Party of India (CPI):

• Origins: Emerged in the 1920s, inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution. Worked within Congress from 1935.
• Stand during WWII: Parted ways in Dec 1941 by supporting the British war effort against Nazi Germany.
• Organisation: Had a well-organized machinery and cadre at independence.
• Initial Stance on Independence: Initially deemed the 1947 transfer of power not true independence, encouraging violent uprisings (e.g., Telangana), which failed and were crushed.
• Shift to Elections: Abandoned violent revolution in 1951, deciding to contest elections.
• Electoral Performance: Won 16 Lok Sabha seats in 1952, becoming the largest opposition party. Support concentrated in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Kerala.
• Notable leaders: A. K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, P.C. Joshi, Ajay Ghosh, P. Sundarraya.
• A. K. Gopalan (1904-1977): Ayillyath Kuttiari Gopalan was a prominent communist leader from Kerala. A seasoned freedom fighter, he joined the CPI and was a leading figure in the peasant and workers’ movements. He served as a Member of Parliament for many terms and was a key voice of the opposition.
• S.A. Dange (1899-1991): Shripad Amrit Dange was a pioneer of the communist movement in India and a leading trade unionist. He was one of the founding members of the Communist Party of India and played a significant role in organizing industrial workers in Bombay.
• P.C. Joshi (1907-1980): Puran Chand Joshi was the first General Secretary of the Communist Party of India. He was instrumental in building the party’s organization and mass base, and was known for his intellectual contributions to the communist movement.
• Ajay Ghosh (1909-1962): Ajoy Kumar Ghosh was a prominent communist leader and former General Secretary of the Communist Party of India. He was known for his intellectual abilities and his efforts to unite the communist movement.
• P. Sundarayya (1913-1985): Puchalapalli Sundarayya was a revolutionary communist leader from Andhra Pradesh. He was one of the founding members of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and played a crucial role in the Telangana armed struggle and peasant movements.
• Split: Split in 1964 due to the Sino-Soviet ideological rift, into CPI (pro-Soviet) and CPI(M) (opponents).

Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS):

• Formation: Formed in 1951, founder-President Shyama Prasad Mukherjee.
• Lineage: Traced to Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Hindu Mahasabha.
• Ideology: Emphasized “one country, one culture, one nation,” based on Indian culture and traditions. Called for India-Pakistan reunion (Akhand Bharat).
• Key Policies: Advocated replacing English with Hindi as the official language. Opposed concessions to minorities. Consistently advocated for India developing nuclear weapons, especially after China’s 1964 tests.
• Electoral Performance: Remained electorally marginal in the 1950s (3 Lok Sabha seats in 1952, 4 in 1957). Early support mainly from urban areas in Hindi-speaking states (Rajasthan, MP, Delhi, UP).
• Leaders: S. P. Mukherjee, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya, Balraj Madhok.
• Deen Dayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968): An ideologue and leader of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh. He was the proponent of the philosophy of “Integral Humanism,” which sought to provide an indigenous framework for the party’s political and economic agenda. He emphasized a holistic approach to human development and self-reliance.
• Balraj Madhok (1920-2016): A prominent leader of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh and an ideologue of the RSS. He was known for his staunch nationalist views and his strong advocacy for India’s unity and integrity.
• Contemporary Party: The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) traces its roots to the BJS.

Swatantra Party:

• Formation: Formed in August 1959, just before the 1962 elections.
• Leaders: Founded by disgruntled Congress leaders like C. Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi, N.G. Ranga, and Minoo Masani.

• C. Rajagopalachari (1878-1972): Popularly known as Rajaji, he was a veteran freedom fighter, the first and last Indian Governor-General of independent India, and a former Chief Minister of Madras. He was a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi but later diverged from Congress’s socialist policies, advocating for a free economy and individual liberty.

• K.M. Munshi (1887-1971): Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi was a prominent Indian independence activist, politician, writer, and educationist. He was a lawyer, a member of the Constituent Assembly, and later served as a Union Minister. He was known for his literary contributions and his founding of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.

• N.G. Ranga (1900-1995): Gogineni Ranga Nayukulu, widely known as N.G. Ranga, was a renowned parliamentarian, peasant leader, and classical liberal. He was a strong advocate for farmers’ rights and was critical of state intervention in the economy.

• Minoo Masani (1905-1998): Minocher Rustom Masani was a leading figure of the Swatantra Party. A classical liberal, he was a sharp critic of centralized planning and advocated for free-market economics and individual freedom. He was also a Member of Parliament and a noted author.
• Ideology: Emerged from the belief that the Congress Party, under Jawaharlal Nehru’s socialist leanings, was increasingly adopting policies that were detrimental to individual liberty and economic prosperity.
  • Opposed to “Statism”: Strongly against the state control of the economy, nationalisation, land ceilings, and cooperative farming. They believed these policies hindered individual initiative and enterprise.
  • Pro-Market Economy: Advocated for a free economy with less government intervention, arguing that prosperity could only come through individual freedom and a market-based approach.
  • Opposed Non-Alignment: Advocated closer ties with the United States and the Western bloc, opposing India’s non-aligned foreign policy.
  • Protection of Property Rights: Believed in the protection of fundamental property rights.
• Electoral Performance: Achieved some success in the 1960s, particularly in states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, and parts of Bihar and Andhra Pradesh, where its appeal resonated with landlords and princes who felt threatened by Congress’s land reforms, and with business interests.
• Significance: Represented a significant right-wing alternative to the Congress and contributed to the multi-ideological political landscape of independent India.

Other Significant Political Figures and Parties:

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and his Parties:

• Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891-1956): Revered as Babasaheb, Dr. Ambedkar was a towering figure in Indian history. He was a jurist, economist, politician, and social reformer who campaigned against social discrimination towards untouchables (Dalits) and supported the rights of women and labour. He played a crucial role in drafting the Constitution of India and served as India’s first Minister of Law and Justice.
• His Political Initiatives:
  • Independent Labour Party (ILP): Formed in 1936, the ILP was aimed at representing the interests of the depressed classes and workers. It contested the 1937 provincial elections and achieved some success.
  • Scheduled Castes Federation (SCF): Founded in 1942, the SCF was a broader political party formed to advocate for the rights and political representation of the Scheduled Castes across India. It contested the 1946 provincial elections and the first general election in 1952, though with limited electoral success at the national level.
  • Republican Party of India (RPI): Just before his death in 1956, Dr. Ambedkar announced the formation of the Republican Party of India as a broader platform for the socially disadvantaged and marginalized. Though founded by him, the party was formally established after his demise by his followers. It aimed to unite Dalits, other backward classes, and minorities under a common political banner for social justice and equality.
• Role in Opposition: Although his parties did not achieve widespread electoral success against the Congress juggernaut in the early elections, Dr. Ambedkar remained a powerful and vocal critic of the government, especially on issues concerning social justice, caste discrimination, and the implementation of constitutional safeguards. His intellectual contributions and persistent advocacy laid the foundation for future Dalit political assertion.

Conclusion 

The first phase of India’s democratic politics was unique. The Congress party’s dominance stemmed from its key role in the freedom struggle and its broad-based, inclusive social and ideological coalition character, which allowed it to manage internal factions effectively. This dominance occurred within a competitive, multi-party democratic framework, unlike many other one-party states. While opposition parties had limited electoral success initially, they played a vital role in critiquing the government, maintaining democratic alternatives, and shaping future politics. As Congress’s ability to accommodate all interests declined over time, other parties gained significance, marking the end of this specific phase of one-party dominance in Indian politics.