Citizenship is the legal status of being a member of a particular country, entailing rights, responsibilities, and privileges. It is often acquired through birth, naturalization, or descent.
Introduction
Citizenship is a multifaceted concept that transcends mere legal status and nationality. While it is often associated with a set of rights and entitlements guaranteed by a country’s constitution, it encompasses a deeper sense of belonging to a political community. This article delves into the meaning, history, and various theories surrounding the concept of citizenship, shedding light on its intricate layers.
Table of Contents
The Meaning of Citizenship
The term “citizenship” finds its roots in the Latin word ‘civis’ and its Greek counterpart ‘polites,’ signifying a member of a city or polis. Citizenship entails the possession of rights, duties, and privileges within a nation, playing a vital role in the political, economic, social, religious, and cultural fabric of a country.
English sociologist T.H. Marshall defines citizenship as “full and equal membership in a political community.” It ensures equal rights, duties, liberties, and constraints for individuals and dates back to ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, who emphasized civic participation and shared governance. Aristotle observed that citizens are “all who share in the civic life of ruling and being ruled in turn”. Derek Heater in his work, ‘Multiple Citizenship’ also provided the concept of “Civic virtue” which interlinks the idea of citizenship with a sense of loyalty or responsibility towards the state that deals with duties and obligations with rights and identity.
Elements of Citizenship:
• Participation
• Autonomy
• Social Order
• Solidarity
Definitions of Citizenship by Different Scholars
T.H Marshall: Citizenship is the bestowed status of full membership in a community, characterized by equal rights and duties. It forms the core of citizen processes.
Gettel emphasizes an individual’s status, where citizenship grants the enjoyment of civil and political rights within a state, coupled with the readiness to fulfill obligations.
Laski sees citizenship as a contribution to public good through informed judgment, suggesting a deeper engagement with societal well-being.
Ak. Siu defines a citizen as one who owes allegiance to the state, possesses civil and political rights, and is inspired by a spirit of service to humanity.
Contemporary Citizenship Models: Natural Born vs. Naturalized Citizens
Diving into the dynamics of modern citizenship, we encounter two primary categories: natural-born citizens and naturalized citizens. The former inherit citizenship through birth, while the latter actively adopt the citizenship of a nation. Notably, some nations accord higher status to natural-born citizens, especially in key political positions. In India, for instance, eligibility for the roles of Prime Minister or President requires natural-born citizenship, excluding naturalized citizens.
Contrastingly, some nations adopt an egalitarian approach, affording equal political and economic rights to both natural-born and naturalized citizens. This inclusive stance aims to eliminate disparities, recognizing the shared commitment of all citizens to the nation’s welfare. It prompts a broader conversation about the evolving nature of citizenship in an increasingly interconnected world.
Marxist Theory of Citizenship (Anthony Giddens):
Anthony Giddens, in his works “A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism” and “Profiles and Critiques of Social Theory,” argues that citizenship is intricately tied to class struggle. He suggests that citizenship rights are won by a class through rebellion and by suppressing the rights of their antagonistic class. Giddens emphasizes the role of class conflict in extending citizenship rights, asserting that it has been more instrumental in this process than merely blunting class divisions.
Giddens also highlights the precarious and contested nature of modern citizenship, with the ruling class often challenging it. In his ‘The Nation State and Violence’, Giddens talks about the changing nature of capitalism. He talks about ‘welfare capitalism’ which safeguards the ‘civil rights’ of the working class.
Liberal Theory of Citizenship (T.H. Marshall):
T.H. Marshall is the chief proponent of the Liberal theory of citizenship, often referred to as the “Evolutionary theory of Citizenship.” T.H Marshall in his theory of Citizenship deals with two themes: Equality and integrity. Marshall in his essay, ‘Citizenship and social class (1950)’ talked about British citizenship and explained “Citizenship as a status which is enjoyed by a person who is a full member of a community”.
According to Marshall, citizenship comprises Civil Citizenship, which guarantees individual freedoms; Political Citizenship, which provides the right to participate in political power; and Social Citizenship, which ensures an appropriate standard of living through welfare and educational systems. Marshall’s theory highlights the evolution of citizenship through these components and sees it as the status of a full community member.
Marshall states that, ‘Capitalism inevitably involves inequalities between social classes, while citizenship involves some redistribution of resources, because of rights which are shared equally by all’.
Communitarian Theory of Citizenship (Hannah Arendt, Michael Walzer, Benjamin Barber):
The Communitarian theory, often referred to as the “Republican theory of Citizenship,” emphasizes citizen participation in political affairs. Advocates of this theory, such as Hannah Arendt, Michael Walzer, and Benjamin Barber, assert that true citizenship can only be achieved when individuals assimilate themselves into the culture, traditions, beliefs, and sentiments of their community.
This theory encourages active participation and a strong sense of belonging to a larger community as integral to the citizenship experience.
Feminism and Citizenship:
Feminist perspectives on citizenship critique existing theories for being “Gender Blind.” Rian Voet in her work ‘Active and sex-equal citizenship (1998)’ challenged the idea of private and public sphere. Historically, women were excluded from political tasks and public offices, with citizenship seen as a predominantly male domain. Feminist scholars introduced a gender-sensitive dimension to citizenship, advocating for differentiated equality and differentiated citizenship. They argue that formal equality is insufficient, and special provisions are needed to compensate for the disadvantages women face in society.
Feminists contend that true citizenship cannot be realized until women have equal opportunities for participation in public life.
Pluralist Theory of Citizenship (David Held, B.S. Turner):
Pluralist theory, as presented by David Held and B.S. Turner. David Held in his ‘Political Theory and the Modern state’, states that citizenship is the reciprocal relationship between the individual and the community. It underscores the interdependence of rights and duties, viewing them as two sides of the same coin. For pluralists, citizenship revolves around the involvement of individuals in their community’s life.
B.S. Turner in his ‘Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate over Reformism’, has given a Sociological Model of Citizenship often regarded as an outline theory of Citizenship. He talks about the Coexistence without discrimination.
The Multicultural Notion of Citizenship: Will Kymlicka and Iris Marion Young
The multicultural notion of citizenship is a concept that addresses the challenges and complexities arising from cultural diversity within a society. This perspective emphasizes the need to recognize and accommodate different cultural identities and practices within the framework of citizenship. Two prominent scholars who have contributed significantly to the understanding of multicultural citizenship are Will Kymlicka and Iris Marion Young.
Will Kymlicka: Multicultural Citizenship
Will Kymlicka is a Canadian political philosopher who has extensively written on multiculturalism and minority rights. His work, particularly outlined in his influential book “Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights,” explores how liberal democratic states can accommodate cultural diversity while upholding individual rights and equality. Here are some key aspects of Kymlicka’s multicultural citizenship:
Cultural Rights: Kymlicka argues that individuals belonging to cultural minority groups should have certain group-specific rights to protect and preserve their distinct cultural practices and identities. These rights may include language rights, educational rights, and autonomy in certain internal affairs.
Group Representation: Kymlicka advocates for a form of group representation to ensure that minority voices are heard in the political process. This can involve measures such as affirmative action or proportional representation to give minority groups a fair say in decision-making.
Civic Nationalism: Kymlicka promotes a form of civic nationalism that recognizes a shared political culture while allowing for the coexistence of multiple cultural identities. He argues that a sense of national identity can be inclusive and not necessarily tied to a single culture.
Iris Marion Young: Differentiated Citizenship
Iris Marion Young, an American political theorist, has made significant contributions to political philosophy, feminist theory, and the understanding of justice in diverse societies. Her work, particularly in the book “Justice and the Politics of Difference,” provides insights into the challenges of justice in culturally diverse contexts. Here are key elements of Young’s perspective on multicultural citizenship:
Differential Citizenship: Young argues for a form of differential citizenship that acknowledges and accommodates the specific needs and experiences of different groups within society. This involves recognizing and addressing structural inequalities that affect certain groups disproportionately. Marion calls for ‘Special rights’ for instance Helmets are not compulsory for people who wear Turbans – Sikhs.
Communicative Democracy: Young emphasizes the importance of communicative democracy, where citizens from diverse backgrounds actively engage in public discourse. This requires creating spaces for dialogue and ensuring that marginalized voices have the opportunity to be heard.
Inclusion and Participation: Young emphasizes the need for active inclusion and participation of all citizens, irrespective of their cultural background. This involves reevaluating institutional structures and practices to ensure they do not perpetuate exclusion.
Overall Both Kymlicka and Young contribute to the multicultural notion of citizenship by proposing ways to reconcile cultural diversity with the principles of liberal democracy. While Kymlicka focuses on group-specific rights and cultural accommodation within a liberal framework, Young highlights the importance of addressing systemic inequalities and promoting inclusive democratic practices.
Globalization and Citizenship
Globalization refers to the interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and societies on a global scale. Yasmin Soysel, a prominent scholar, has contributed to the discourse on globalization and citizenship. She emphasizes the evolving nature of citizenship in the face of global challenges, advocating for a cosmopolitan perspective that transcends national borders.
Soysel argues that in a globalized world, individuals should cultivate a sense of global citizenship, recognizing their interconnectedness with people worldwide. She gave the principle of ‘Universal personhood’ that involves embracing diversity, promoting social justice, and engaging in global issues which can be ensured through Global Civil Society. Soysel’s work encourages a shift from traditional notions of citizenship tied to a specific nation to a more inclusive and interconnected understanding that aligns with the complexities of our globalized reality.
Conclusion
Citizenship, as a dynamic and multifaceted concept, plays a central role in shaping the rights and responsibilities of individuals within a state. It encompasses a rich history and a range of theories that continue to evolve as societies progress. Understanding the complexities of citizenship is vital for comprehending individual and communal rights in a broader context.
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