“Politics is the art of the possible, the attainable — the art of the next best.”
— Otto von Bismarck

Introduction

The term “politics” originates from the Greek word “polis,” signifying ‘city’ or ‘state.’ It represents humanity’s endeavor to establish a societal order perceived as beneficial by its members. In ancient Greece, politics signified a groundbreaking approach to citizen interaction, advocating for civic equality despite differences in wealth and intellect. This civic identity nurtured rationality among citizens, positioning politics as a unique human activity characterized by discernible patterns, albeit influenced by human nature.

Ancient Greek political thought, notably represented by Aristotle, focused on the study of constitutions and the cyclical theory of governance. Aristotle observed that monarchies often devolve into tyrannies, which are then replaced by aristocracies. These, in turn, transform into oligarchies, followed by democracies, leading to eventual instability and a return to monarchy. He advocated for a balanced constitution, or polity, underscoring the importance of democracy. Ancient Rome demonstrated politics through well-structured offices designed to limit power, highlighting the nuanced concept of authority.

Politics as a Practical Activity

Defining Politics

Defining politics succinctly is challenging due to its varied applications and nuances. A practical definition describes politics as the activity through which groups achieve binding collective decisions by reconciling differences among members.

Nature of Politics

Politics is inherently a collective activity necessitating a shared membership or common fate among participants. It assumes initial diversity of views, requiring communication and persuasion to reconcile differences. Political decisions become authoritative, binding members to collective choices enforced, if necessary, by force. Politics is essential because of the collective nature of human life, influencing all aspects of our existence.

Inescapable Feature of Human Condition

Politics, often cynically viewed as the pursuit of private gain under the guise of public interest, is an unavoidable aspect of human existence. Aristotle emphasized that humans are ‘political animals’ by nature, distinguishing us from other species through our engagement in political communities. Politics enables the expression of reasoning and virtue through community participation. Even in the absence of consensus, decisions must be made, making politics a mechanism for public choice and rational solutions.

Understanding Politics

Politics encompasses more than media portrayals. It involves the activities of politicians, the struggle for power, and the relationships between states. Politics is about the distribution of power, embodied in human relationships where individuals impose their will on others. Max Weber’s definition of politics as ‘independent leadership in action’ expands the concept beyond governmental activities to any context where power relations exist, including trade unions, universities, and social movements.

The State

Defining the state is complex, with no consensus on a single definition. States vary significantly, from Greek city-states to modern nation-states, each with distinct political institutions and social contexts. The liberal-democratic state, characterized by representative institutions, differs from fascist or socialist states. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for studying politics.

Differences Based on Political Institutions and Social Context

States differ based on their political institutions and social contexts. Liberal-democratic states feature parliaments and independent judiciaries, while fascist states are leader-controlled. Social contexts also vary, with Western systems embedded in capitalist economies, contrasting with state-controlled economies in Soviet-type systems. These differences shape the state’s nature and purposes.

Ralph Miliband’s Views on the State

Ralph Miliband’s “The State in Capitalist Society” outlines the elements constituting the state: government, bureaucracy, military, police, judiciary, and local government. Each element plays a role in the state’s functioning, with the government being just one part. Political parties, though not part of the state apparatus, influence the representative assembly, highlighting the state’s complexity.

Various Forms of the State

The modern state, identified as the nation-state, has evolved through history from tribal states to modern nation-states. The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 marked the emergence of territorial states, leading to the consolidation of political authority and the rise of international law. The concept of the state is influenced by liberal, Marxist, and feminist perspectives, each offering distinct views on state functions and purposes.

Politics as a Vocation

Max Weber’s lecture “Politics as a Vocation” emphasizes the state’s monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Politics involves striving to share or influence the distribution of power among states or groups. The study of politics must consider the relationship between state and society, recognizing the growth and centralization of state power and the role of bureaucracy in modern times. Marx’s and Weber’s differing views on socialism and state power highlight the complexity of political structures.

The Legitimate Use of Power

Max Weber on Legitimation

Weber identifies three types of legitimation: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. Traditional legitimation relies on historical authority, charismatic on exceptional personal qualities, and legal-rational on procedural rules. Power-holders seek legitimacy to ensure voluntary compliance, reducing the need for coercion. Legitimate authority fosters stability, with people obeying rules they perceive as just.

Legitimation: Central Concern of Political Science

The concept of legitimation is central to political science, examining how power-holders justify their authority and the extent of public acceptance. The stability of political systems depends on a combination of consent and coercion, with legitimate power ensuring voluntary compliance.

Process of Delegitimation

Delegitimation occurs when the legitimacy of power is questioned or undermined, leading to challenges against authority and potential instability.

Manipulated Consent

Manipulated consent involves using propaganda or other means to create a perception of legitimacy, ensuring compliance even when genuine consent is lacking.

Personnel of the State Machine: The Elite

The elite, including political leaders, bureaucrats, and other influential figures, play a crucial role in maintaining state power and legitimacy.

Overall, Politics is a complex and multifaceted activity essential to human society. It involves the distribution and exercise of power, the establishment of legitimate authority, and the functioning of various political institutions. Understanding the nature of politics, the state, and legitimation is crucial for comprehending the dynamics of political systems.

Elite Theories vs. Structural Theories

Elitist theories emphasize the importance of the state elite’s nature and composition, suggesting that the political system’s character is best understood by analyzing its elite, the ruling minority that controls the state apparatus. According to this perspective, the talents and abilities of leaders are paramount, with poor leadership potentially leading to disastrous consequences. Max Weber advocated for a strong parliament to foster capable leaders, unlike the bureaucracy, which he viewed as unsuitable for creative leadership.

In contrast, Marxist theories place less importance on the state elite’s nature, focusing instead on the social context and economic framework within which the state system operates. These theories argue that the state’s activities are shaped more by structural conditions than by the elite’s character. Structural theories emphasize the constraints on government stemming from the social structures within which it functions.

Despite these differences, elitist and structural interpretations are not mutually exclusive. This brings us to the relationship between state and society. Marx’s assertion that the Bonapartist state’s power was not ‘suspended mid-air’ can be generalized to all state systems, raising questions about how societal power structures affect and constrain political leaders, the state’s role in maintaining or mitigating social inequalities, and the independence of civil society. Some theorists use the concept of ‘totalitarianism’ to describe situations where society is entirely controlled by state power, with no independence.

Concluding Thoughts

Understanding politics involves grasping the needs, objectives, and goals of human life as they relate to political activities. Politics is the game of power, with various players competing within and among states. The state, authorized to use legitimate power, forms the central point of this activity. Authority, a broader notion than power, represents the right to rule and is essential for maintaining order.

The rise of modern nation-states has provided stability to the international system, but contemporary challenges remain. Issues like scattered communities demanding statehood (e.g., the Kurds), ethnic groups forming states but failing to assimilate (e.g., the former Soviet Union), and non-traditional threats like terrorism, climate change, and drug trafficking require cooperative security efforts. States must address these issues and sometimes cede authority in the interest of global stability.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Politics

1.What do you mean by politics?

Ans. Politics refers to the process by which people living in groups make collective decisions. It involves creating agreements between individuals to facilitate living together in organized communities, such as tribes, cities, or countries. In larger groups, like countries, some individuals may devote significant time and effort to forming these agreements.

2.What do you mean by politics?

Ans. Politics refers to the process by which people living in groups make collective decisions. It involves creating agreements between individuals to facilitate living together in organized communities, such as tribes, cities, or countries. In larger groups, like countries, some individuals may devote significant time and effort to forming these agreements.

3. Who first defined politics? 

Ans. Aristotle, a 4th-century BC Greek philosopher, is credited with defining politics. His work “Politics” explores political philosophy and follows his examination of ethics in the “Nicomachean Ethics,” where he suggests that the study of ethics naturally leads to an investigation of politics.

4. What is the study of politics? 

Ans. The study of politics, known as political science, examines politics and power from domestic, international, and comparative perspectives. It encompasses understanding political ideas, ideologies, institutions, policies, processes, and behavior, as well as the roles of groups, classes, governments, diplomacy, law, strategy, and warfare.

5. What are the basic questions of political science?

Ans. Some examples of political science questions include:

• How do political institutions affect policy outcomes?
• What factors contribute to the emergence of democratic governments?
• How do interest groups influence the political process?
• What role do political parties play in democratic systems?

6. Who is the father of political science?

Ans. Aristotle

Aristotle, Father of Political Science is one of the most influential thinker of Western Political Thought provided extensive work on Western philosophy, Political science, and ethics, shaping the foundations of these fields and influencing centuries of thought. His works laid the groundwork for critical thinking and systematic inquiry.