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G20 Summit 2025 Johannesburg
New Delhi: In a landmark moment for global diplomacy, the 20th G20 Leaders’ Summit concluded in Johannesburg, South Africa on Sunday, marking the first time the world’s most powerful economies convened on African soil. Under the powerful African philosophy of Ubuntu – “I am because we are” – the summit adopted a sweeping 122-paragraph Johannesburg Declaration emphasizing…
COP30 Ends in Belém: A Fragile Consensus, No Fossil-Fuel Phase-Out, and Two Voluntary Roadmaps for the Future
New Delhi: After two weeks of torrential rain, a roof-scorching fire, two emergency evacuations, and a 24-hour overrun that pushed negotiators through two consecutive all-nighters, the 30th UN Climate Change Conference (COP30) closed in the early hours of Sunday with a compromise that satisfied almost no one completely yet prevented the collapse of the talks. Under…
India Records World’s Fastest Growth in Ultra-Processed Food Sales, Driving Sharp Rise in Obesity and Diabetes: The Lancet Series
New Delhi: India has emerged as the global leader in ultra-processed food (UPF) sales growth, with retail volumes rising from US$ 0.9 billion in 2006 to nearly US$ 38 billion in 2019 — a forty-fold increase in just 13 years — according to a major three-paper Series published in The Lancet on Wednesday. The explosive…
Colonialism and Decolonization
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State Theory
Supreme Court Strikes Down Core Provisions of Tribunals Reforms Act, 2021
New Delhi: In a major victory for judicial independence, the Supreme Court on Wednesday declared several key provisions of the Tribunals Reforms Act, 2021 unconstitutional and directed the Union Government to establish a fully independent National Tribunals Commission (NTC) within four months. A Bench comprising Chief Justice of India B.R. Gavai and Justice K.V. Chandran delivered…
Political Culture Approach by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba
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Supreme Court Threatens Telangana Speaker with Contempt Over Delayed MLA Disqualification: “Decide Where You Want to Celebrate New Year”
New Delhi: In a dramatic and sharply worded hearing on November 17, 2025, the Supreme Court of India issued a stern ultimatum to Telangana Legislative Assembly Speaker Gaddam Prasad Kumar, warning him of “gross contempt of court” for repeatedly failing to decide on disqualification petitions filed against ten Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS) MLAs who defected…
Institutional Approach in Political Science
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Political Economy
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Gabriel Almond’s Structural-Functional Approach
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Behavioural Approach to Comparative Politics
Nine Killed, Twenty Injured in Deadly Car Bomb Blast Near Delhi Red Fort on 10 November 2025
New Delhi: A powerful car bomb exploded near Delhi’s historic Red Fort on the evening of 10 November 2025, killing nine people and injuring twenty others. The blast took place at exactly 6:52 pm outside Gate No. 1 of Lal Qila Metro Station, one of the busiest and most visited places in the capital. The…
Bangladesh Joins Colombo Security Conclave as Fifth Member
New Delhi: In a landmark development for Indian Ocean security cooperation, Bangladesh has officially become the fifth full member of the Colombo Security Conclave (CSC), with India’s National Security Adviser Ajit Doval personally inviting his Bangladeshi counterpart Khalilur Rahman to the upcoming 7th NSA-level meeting in New Delhi on November 19-20, 2025. The announcement, made…
Belem Action Plan for Health and Climate Adaptation Launched at COP30
New Delhi – In a landmark moment at the ongoing COP30 UN Climate Summit in Belem, Brazil, nearly 80 countries and organizations unveiled the Belem Action Plan for Health and Climate Adaptation, marking the world’s first international climate adaptation document exclusively dedicated to health. Launched amid urgent calls for action, the plan aims to strengthen…
WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2025: India Leads with 21% Annual TB Incidence Drop Amid Global Funding Shortfalls
Geneva, November 15, 2025 – The World Health Organization (WHO) released its Global Tuberculosis Report 2025 today, offering a comprehensive assessment of the ongoing fight against tuberculosis (TB). The disease continues to rank among the top 10 causes of death worldwide and stands as the leading cause of mortality from a single infectious agent. In 2024,…
Traditional Approaches of Comparative Politics
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Comparative Politics: Understanding Political Systems Through Comparison
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PM Narendra Modi Wraps Up Bhutan Visit
New Delhi: In a landmark diplomatic engagement, Prime Minister Narendra Modi concluded his two-day state visit to Bhutan on Wednesday, leaving behind a trail of strengthened bilateral bonds, groundbreaking energy collaborations, and profound cultural exchanges. The visit, marked by the joint inauguration of the 1,020 MW Punatsangchhu-II hydroelectric project and the announcement of India’s first-ever…
Climate Risk Index 2026: India Ranks 9th Among Nations Most Devastated by Extreme Weather Over 30 Years
New Delhi: Germanwatch has released the Climate Risk Index 2026, placing India at the 9th position among countries most severely impacted by extreme weather events between 1995 and 2024. The index, introduced in 2006 as an annual global assessment of climate-induced disasters, reveals the mounting human and economic cost of a warming world, with 2024…
India Accelerates Legacy Dumpsite Cleanup with DRAP Launch: ₹3,000 Crore Boost Targets 8.8 Crore MT Waste by 2026
New Delhi: In a landmark move to transform urban India into cleaner, greener, and investment-ready spaces, Union Minister for Housing and Urban Affairs Manohar Lal Khattar unveiled the Dumpsite Remediation Accelerator Programme (DRAP) at the National Urban Conclave 2025. This year-long, mission-mode initiative under Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban 2.0 aims to eradicate legacy dumpsites nationwide, targeting…
Supreme Court Mandates Stray Dog Removal from Public Institutions and Highways in Landmark Human Safety Ruling
New Delhi: In a groundbreaking decision prioritizing citizen safety under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, the Supreme Court has ordered the immediate expulsion of stray dogs from educational institutions, hospitals, sports complexes, bus stands, railway stations, and other high-footfall public spaces. The apex court also extended directives to clear national highways, state roads, and expressways…
Postmodernism
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Sovereignty
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QS Asia University Rankings 2026: Record Indian Participation Overshadowed by Slipping Positions of Elite Institutes as China Takes Lead
New Delhi: Indian higher education reached a new milestone in the QS World University Rankings: Asia 2026, with 294 institutions earning spots on the list, up from just 24 in 2016. This dramatic growth reflects a decade of focused expansion, yet the celebration is tempered by a changing regional landscape where China now commands the…
India’s Amul and IFFCO Claim Top Two Spots in World Cooperative Monitor 2025: A Triumph of Cooperative Excellence
New Delhi: In a groundbreaking achievement that underscores India’s dominance in the global cooperative movement, the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd (Amul) and the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) have secured the first and second positions, respectively, in the prestigious World Cooperative Monitor 2025. Released by the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) at the…
Liberalism and Neoliberalism in International Relations
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APEC 2025: Gyeongju Summit Delivers AI Roadmap, Population Strategy, and Trade Reset as Taiwan-China Row Looms Over 2026
New Delhi: The 2025 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Leaders’ Meeting concluded Saturday in the ancient capital of Gyeongju after 48 hours of intensive dialogue, producing a comprehensive declaration, two flagship policy frameworks, and a fragile but notable détente in the U.S.-China trade relations. Beneath the surface of consensus-driven outcomes, however, a sharp exchange between Taiwan…
Ecologism: Understanding Our Ecological Interdependence
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Conservatism: Preserving Tradition in a Changing World
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Feminism
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India Creates History: Maiden ICC Women’s ODI World Cup 2025 Triumph Sparks Nationwide Euphoria
New Delhi: In a watershed moment for Indian sports, the nation’s women’s cricket team scripted an indelible chapter of glory, shedding the ghosts of finals past to lift their first-ever ICC Women’s ODI World Cup trophy. On a pulsating night at the D.Y. Patil Stadium in Navi Mumbai, Team India defeated a resilient South African side…
ISRO’s LVM3 Soars, Deploying GSAT-7R: A Quantum Leap for Indian Navy’s Communicative Prowess
New Delhi: In a landmark event that solidifies India’s strategic autonomy in the final frontier, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully launched the GSAT-7R (CMS-03) communication satellite on Sunday, November 2, 2025. The mission, designated LVM3-M5, blasted off at 5:26 p.m. IST from the second launch pad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota,…
India and United States Sign Landmark 10-Year Defence Framework to Strengthen Strategic Partnership
New Delhi: India and the United States have signed a landmark 10-year Framework for the U.S.–India Major Defence Partnership, providing a unified vision and long-term policy direction to deepen defence cooperation across all sectors. The agreement, concluded on the sidelines of the 12th ASEAN Defence Ministers’ Meeting-Plus (ADMM-Plus) in Kuala Lumpur, marks a new phase in…
Trump–Xi Trade Truce Dominates APEC 2025 as Leaders Push for Inclusive Growth and Global Stability
New Delhi: The 2025 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit in South Korea concluded with renewed pledges for open trade and inclusive growth, but it was the landmark meeting between the U.S. President Donald Trump and Chinese President Xi Jinping that defined the event. Their first in-person meeting since 2019, held on the sidelines in Busan,…
India Ushers in Game-Changing Era: AI and Computational Thinking Set to Transform School Curricula Starting Class 3 from 2026
New Delhi: In a bold stride toward equipping the nation’s youngest learners with cutting-edge digital prowess, India’s Ministry of Education has unveiled plans to roll out a comprehensive Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Computational Thinking (CT) curriculum across all schools from Class 3 beginning the 2026-27 academic year. This landmark initiative, deeply rooted in the National…
International Solar Alliance 8th Assembly Kicks Off in New Delhi: President Murmu Calls for Solar-Powered Global Equity at Bharat Mandapam Summit
New Delhi: The Eighth Session of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) Assembly commenced today at the iconic Bharat Mandapam convention centre in the national capital, drawing participation from 124 Member and Signatory Countries and over 40 Ministers representing diverse geographies. Inaugurated by President Droupadi Murmu, the four-day global gathering aims to review progress, address challenges,…
ASEAN-India Summit 2025: Modi Declares 2026 Maritime Year in Virtual Address Amid Geopolitical Flux
New Delhi: Prime Minister Narendra Modi, addressing the 22nd ASEAN-India Summit virtually from New Delhi on October 26, proclaimed the 21st century “the century of India and ASEAN” and designated 2026 as the ASEAN-India Year of Maritime Cooperation. The announcement, delivered under Malaysia’s 2025 ASEAN chairmanship, underscored India’s commitment to ASEAN centrality and the ASEAN Outlook…
Chapter-10, The Philosophy of the Constitution: Solution
EXERCISES 1. The following are certain laws. Are they connected with any value? If yes, then what is the underlying value? Give reasons. a. Both daughters and sons will share in the family property. Answer: Yes, this law is connected with the value of gender equality and social justice. Reason: This law ensures that daughters…
Chapter: 10 The Philosophy of the Constitution
Introduction This chapter examines the fundamental principles, values, and objectives that form the foundation of the Indian Constitution, often referred to as its philosophy. Over the last 69 years, the Constitution has functioned successfully, leading to several critical questions : ● Why did the leaders of the national movement feel compelled to adopt a constitution after…
Chapter-9, Constitution as a Living Document: Solution
EXERCISES Exercise 1: Choose the correct statement from the following. A constitution needs to be amended from time to time because, ● Circumstances change and require suitable changes in the constitution. ● A document written at one point of time becomes outdated after some time. ● Every generation should have a constitution of its own liking. ● It must…
Chapter 9: The Constitution as a Living Document
Introduction The Constitution of India, adopted on November 26, 1949, and formally brought into effect on January 26, 1950, has successfully served as the governing framework for the country for over 74 years. This long-standing stability is not common globally, prompting an examination of how the same foundational document remains effective. By studying this chapter, we…
Chapter 8, Local Governments: Solution
EXERCISES 1. The Constitution of India visualised village panchayats as units of self-government. Think over the situation described in the following statements and explain how these situations strengthen or weaken the panchayats into becoming units of self-government. a. The Government of a State has allowed a big company to establish a huge steel plant. Many…
Chapter 8: Local Governments
Introduction and the Necessity of Local Governments In a large and diverse democracy like India, merely having elected governments at the Central (Union) and State levels is insufficient for complete governance. Democracy requires the presence of elected government bodies even at the local level to effectively manage local affairs and ensure broad participation. Defining Local Government…
Democracy: More Than Just a Political System
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Chapter 7 Federalism: Solution
EXERCISES 1. From the list of following events, which ones would you identify with the functioning of federalism? Why? The Centre on Tuesday announced Sixth Schedule status to GNLF-led Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council, which would ensure greater autonomy to the governing body in the Hill district of West Bengal. A tripartite Memorandum of Settlement was…
Chapter:7 Federalism
INTRODUCTION India’s political map has undergone remarkable changes since 1947, reflecting shifts in boundaries, names, and the number of States. At the time of Independence, the country consisted of British-administered provinces and over 500 princely states that merged with the newly formed Indian Union. Over the decades, India’s States have been reorganized multiple times, and…
Supreme Court Links Freedom of Religion and Privacy as Core Rights Shielded from State Overreach in Landmark Ruling
New Delhi: In a groundbreaking decision that reinforces the foundational principles of India’s Constitution, the Supreme Court has affirmed that the freedom to choose and practice one’s religion is deeply intertwined with the right to personal privacy, placing such matters firmly outside unwarranted government intervention. This ruling, delivered on October 17, 2025, in the case of…
The State: Definition, History, and Modern Realities
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Citizenship: A Comprehensive Overview
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The Concept of Power: Essence and Theories
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Rights: Meaning, Types, Generations and Theories
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Sanae Takaichi Elected as First Female Prime Minister of Japan
New Delhi: In a landmark moment for Japanese politics, Sanae Takaichi has been officially elected as Japan’s first female Prime Minister, shattering decades of male-dominated leadership in the world’s third-largest economy. The ultraconservative politician, often dubbed Japan’s “Iron Lady,” secured victory in a tense parliamentary vote on October 21, 2025, paving the way for a…
EU-India Strategic Agenda 2025: European Council Greenlights Ambitious Roadmap for FTA, Defence Ties, and Global Partnership
New Delhi: In a landmark decision that signals a transformative phase in Indo-European relations, the European Council has formally approved the New Strategic EU-India Agenda. This comprehensive framework, unveiled just weeks ago, charts a bold course for collaboration across economics, technology, security, and global connectivity. Announced on October 20, 2025, the approval underscores the EU’s commitment…
ISRO’s Chandrayaan-2 Unveils Groundbreaking Insights: First Direct Glimpse of Solar Storms Reshaping Moon’s Fragile Atmosphere
New Delhi: In a dazzling display of cosmic detective work, India’s Chandrayaan-2 mission has etched its name deeper into the annals of space exploration. For the first time in human history, scientists have captured irrefutable evidence of how ferocious solar storms—known as coronal mass ejections (CMEs)—rip through the Moon’s whisper-thin veil of gas, the exosphere. This…
US and Australia Forge $8.5 Billion Critical Minerals Pact to Challenge China’s Grip on Rare Earths
New Delhi: In a bold move to reshape the global fight for essential resources, U.S. President Donald Trump and Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese sealed a landmark critical minerals agreement on October 20, 2025. This pact targets China’s overwhelming control over vital materials like rare earth elements, which power everything from electric cars to military…
Mary Parker Follett: Constructive Conflict, Depersonalizing Orders and Transformational Leadership
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Management by Objectives (MBO) by Peter Drucker
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Communication Theory by Karl Deutsch
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Management Systems I-IV Model | Rensis Likert’s Theory of Leadership
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Theory X and Theory Y by Douglas McGregor
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T-Group Model: Chris Argyris’s Approach and Advocacy
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Motivation-Hygiene Theory by Frederick Herzberg
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Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow
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New Public Management | Meaning, Features, and Importance
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Development Administration
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Ecological Approach by Fred Riggs
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Systems Theory by David Easton
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Decision-Making Theory by Herbert Simon
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Human Relations Theory BY Elton Mayo
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Types Of Bureaucracy By Fm Marx
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Scientific Management Theory by F.W. Taylor
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Classical Organisation Theory by Henry Fayol
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Public and Private Administration Differences and Similarities
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Public Administration, Nature, Scope and Evolution
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Landmark Outcomes from IUCN World Conservation Congress 2025 in Abu Dhabi
New Delhi: The 2025 edition of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Conservation Congress has wrapped up in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, after an intensive week of discussions and decision-making. This event, occurring every four years, serves as a critical platform for shaping worldwide environmental policies. At its core is the…
Supreme Court Relaxes Firecracker Ban in Delhi-NCR for Diwali 2025: Green Crackers Permitted Under Strict Guidelines
New Delhi: In a significant ruling just days before Diwali, the Supreme Court of India has provided temporary relief from the complete firecracker prohibition in the Delhi-National Capital Region (NCR), authorizing the limited sale and bursting of eco-friendly green crackers. This decision aims to harmonize environmental safeguards with cultural festivities, marking a shift from earlier…
11th Class Political Science Notes
11th Class Political Science Class 11 Political Science is the foundation for understanding the structures, principles, and functioning of politics and governance. At this stage, students are introduced to the basics of political theory, concepts of state, rights, liberty, equality, citizenship, constitution, and the working of government institutions. The subject also explores how democracy functions…
2025 Economics Nobel Prize
New Delhi: In a groundbreaking announcement that underscores the pivotal role of innovation in modern economies, the 2025 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences has been bestowed upon three distinguished scholars: Joel Mokyr, Philippe Aghion, and Peter Howitt. Their pioneering research delves into the engines of innovation-driven economic growth, shedding light on why the world has experienced…
Prime Minister Narendra Modi Unveils Transformative Agricultural Schemes to Empower Indian Farmers
New Delhi: Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched two landmark agricultural initiatives, the PM Dhan Dhaanya Krishi Yojana and the Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses, marking a significant step towards self-reliance and rural prosperity in India. With a combined outlay of Rs 35,440 crore, these schemes aim to enhance productivity, promote sustainable farming, and reduce dependency on…
Understanding Liberalism
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María Corina Machado’s 2025 Nobel Peace Prize Victory
New Delhi: In a momentous announcement that has captured global attention, Venezuelan opposition figure María Corina Machado has been honored with the 2025 Nobel Peace Prize. This prestigious accolade recognizes her unwavering commitment to fostering democratic principles amid Venezuela’s turbulent political landscape. Machado, who has faced significant personal risks including going into hiding following disputed…
Afghan Taliban Foreign Minister Amir Khan Muttaqi’s Visit to India
New Delhi: In a significant diplomatic development on October 11, 2025, Afghanistan’s Foreign Minister Amir Khan Muttaqi concluded key meetings during his historic trip to India, marking the first high-level engagement since the Taliban assumed control in Kabul in 2021. This visit underscores a pragmatic shift in India’s approach toward the Taliban-led government, focusing on…
CHAPTER: 6 Judiciary
The Judiciary is a vital organ of the government, serving as an arbitrator in private disputes and performing crucial political functions. The Supreme Court of India is globally recognized as one of the most powerful judicial institutions, playing a fundamental role in interpreting and protecting the Constitution since its inception in 1950. Disputes are inherent in society…
Chapter 6 Judiciary: Solution
EXERCISES 1. What are the different ways in which the independence of the judiciary is ensured? Choose the odd ones out. i. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is consulted in the appointment of other judges of Supreme Court. ii. Judges are generally not removed before the age of retirement. iii. Judge of a High…
Chapter: 5 Legislature Solution
EXERCISES 1. Alok thinks that a country needs an efficient government that looks after the welfare of the people. So, if we simply elected our Prime Minister and Ministers and left to them the task of government, we will not need a legislature. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. Answer: No, I do not…
Chapter 5: The Legislature
Introduction: The Necessity and Role of the Legislature Legislatures are fundamental institutions in a democracy, comprising bodies elected directly or indirectly by the people to represent and work on their behalf. While often viewed solely as a law-making mechanism, the legislature is far more significant; it stands as the center of the entire democratic political…
The Concept of Liberty: Freedom, Rights, and Democracy
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